18 Paul stayed on in Corinth for some time. Then he left the brothers and sailed for Syria, accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila. Before he sailed, he had his hair cut off at Cenchrea because of a vow he had taken. 19 They arrived at Ephesus, where Paul left Priscilla and Aquila. He himself went into the synagogue and reasoned with the Jews. 20 When they asked him to spend more time with them, he declined. 21 But as he left, he promised, "I will come back if it is God's will." Then he set sail from Ephesus. 22 When he landed at Caesarea, he went up and greeted the church and then went down to Antioch.
23 After spending some time in Antioch, Paul set out from there and traveled from place to place throughout the region of Galatia and Phrygia, strengthening all the disciples.
24 Meanwhile a Jew named Apollos, a native of Alexandria, came to Ephesus. He was a learned man, with a thorough knowledge of the Scriptures. 25 He had been instructed in the way of the Lord, and he spoke with great fervor and taught about Jesus accurately, though he knew only the baptism of John. 26 He began to speak boldly in the synagogue. When Priscilla and Aquila heard him, they invited him to their home and explained to him the way of God more adequately.
27 When Apollos wanted to go to Achaia, the brothers encouraged him and wrote to the disciples there to welcome him. On arriving, he was a great help to those who by grace had believed. 28 For he vigorously refuted the Jews in public debate, proving from the Scriptures that Jesus was the Christ.
Males or Females?
Acts 18:1-3, 18-19, 24-26
Sermon
by J. Howard Olds
Perhaps the battle of the sexes has been going on since the beginning of time. At least the jokes go all the way back to Adam and Eve. One joke says that when God finished the creation of Adam, He stepped back, scratched His head and said, “I can surely do better than that." Then He created Eve. Another joke says Adam became lonely after a few weeks in the Garden, so he asked the Lord for a companion. The Lord said, “Let me think it over and get back to you." So the next day the Lord said to Adam, “Here's the deal, I'll make you a beautiful woman who cooks, cleans, and never complains, but it will cost you an arm and a leg." Adam thought for a moment and replied, “What could I get for just a rib?"
So the bantering goes on. Author John Gray made millions back in the 1990's with a book called Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus. A person whom I did not know came up to me at Annual Conference this week and asked, “If a man says something in the middle of the forest and there isn't a woman around to hear him, is he still wrong?" He must have just heard the report of the Role and Status of Women. When my staff read the sermon title for today, two female staff members put me on notice that they would be listening closely to what I say. Well, here we go anyway. “What makes a Church, males or females?"
I. THE CHURCH NEEDS MEN TO BE SPIRITUAL LEADERS.
It's Father's Day. Mother's Day is one of the best Sundays of the year for church attendance, ranking just behind Christmas and Easter. Not so with Father's Day, there are plenty of empty pews. Families seldom make an effort to attend church in honor of fathers. We buy him a tie and then fail to take him anywhere to wear it.
- In 1952, the typical Protestant worship service drew an adult crowd that was 47% male. Today the average is 39%.
- On a given Sunday in this country there are thirteen million fewer men than women sitting in the pews.
- One-fourth of all married church-going women attend services without their husbands.
- Sociologist George Barna reports that men lag behind women in every area of Christian endeavor except that of senior pastor.
So where are all the men on Sunday morning? Are they sleeping, playing golf, working, goofing off, or simply disinterested in spiritual matters? I am not sure that I know the answer to that question, but I do know statistically that there is a truth that we ought to drive home today and that is this: Children whose fathers take them to church are much more likely to practice the faith as adults than those who don't.
If kids see religion as “mom's thing" they are likely to become disenchanted. But, if dad leads by example, children are twenty-two times more likely to become life-long church goers.
Dad, it's critical that you assume your role as spiritual leader. Provide for your children, protect your children, and give your children spiritual instruction. Pray with them; teach their Sunday school classes or become a scout leader or a youth counselor. Sit with them in worship; bless them in the name of the Lord. It will make an eternal difference in their lives. You are critically important in the life of your son or daughter, or grandson or granddaughter.
Aquila, a refugee from Rome, was a tentmaker by profession, but a colleague of Paul by vocation. He and Paul made tents by day and preached the Gospel on weekends. When Paul went to Ephesus to establish a church, Aquila expanded his tent-making business to that city as well, and went along. They made a team together.
Rise up, O Men of God, the Church needs your expertise; your family needs your spiritual guidance; the world needs your moral leadership.
Wake up, O Church of God, and make the gospel relevant to men. While there are effective men's prayer groups scattered throughout this congregation, there is a radical need for a strong, challenging, adventurous, spiritual ministry to men.
John Elderidge in his book Wild at Heart says men are looking for a battle to fight, an adventure to live, a beauty to rescue and all they get in church is a general suggestion that they be nice. Men want to be dangerous, passionate, alive, and free. Meanwhile the church teaches them to be passive and bored to death. Men have settled for killing time and it's killing them.
Howard Macey says, “The spiritual life cannot be made suburban. It is always frontier and we who live in it must accept and even rejoice that it remains untamed." May we catch the wild side of God in our faith. The church needs men as spiritual leaders; the family needs it, the world needs it, your church needs it.
II. THE CHURCH NEEDS WOMEN TO BE SPIRITUAL LEADERS.
The refugee Aquila had a wife whose name was Priscilla. Priscilla was no flower on the wall; she was a force for the Gospel. Paul introduces them in Verse 2 of Chapter 18 as Aquila and Priscilla. In every other reference to them, Versus 18, 19, and 26 he refers to them as Priscilla and Aquila. Do you think Paul is trying to say something here by that inversion in the order of that couple?
It's Priscilla who instructs Apollos in the Faith.
It's Priscilla who opens her home to believers.
When Paul writes his letter to Rome, he says in Chapter 16, Verse 3, “Greet Priscilla and Aquila. They risked their lives for me. Not only I, but all the churches of the Gentiles are grateful to them. Greet also the church that meets at their house." My hunch is that Priscilla was the pastor of the church.
How can that be? Paul himself told Timothy to let the women learn in quietness. Do not permit a woman to teach or have authority over a man; she must be silent (I Timothy 2:11-12). Was this gag order a permanent restraint or a particular situation in which Paul was trying to distinguish between the Christian Church and the Greek Temple of Aphrodite, which was famous for its proliferation of prostitution in the name of religion? I suggest the latter, because if you read the context around it, things about how you fix your hair, or how much jewelry you wear, it is all referring to distinguishing the early church as a Christian church, not a Greek place to practice prostitution.
If Paul intended the statement as a general instruction, he certainly never practiced what he preached, given his listing of women ministers including Priscilla, Phoebe, Nympha, Lydia and numerous others who hosted churches in their houses. The largest institution in America which still denies equal rights to women is the Christian Church.
In an era when gender discrimination is being eliminated in employment, education, and accommodations, the Church lags far behind. Will religious institutions operate at a lower ethical standard than the general public? In 1920 women won the right to vote. It was not until 1956 that the Methodist Church allowed women full clergy rights. We could brag today that we have more women clergy than any other denomination in this country, but we still have a long way to go. Churches, including the Roman Catholics, Mormons, Southern Baptists, and most independent churches continue to deny ordination rights to women.
A very large church in Louisville, Kentucky claims no creed but Christ and no discipline but the Bible. They allow no leadership from women beyond elementary Sunday school. Every time I get the chance I ask their leaders, “What part of Christ do you choose to follow? How much of the Bible are you willing to embrace?"
- Christ was born of the Virgin Mary.
- Women were the first to announce the Resurrection.
- Women were among the one hundred twenty leaders in the upper room at Pentecost.
- In Galatians 3:28, Paul said, “In Christ there is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus."
The overwhelming teaching of the Gospel is that women are equal partners with men in the Kingdom of God and the leadership of the Church. I believe that with all of my heart.
I've had the opportunity to join only one church in my lifetime. That was the church of my childhood. But, if I were going to join a church today, there are some questions I would want to ask at the door. Among them would be these:
1. I'd want to know who they are going to let in and who they are going to keep out. I don't want to be a member of a church where the board votes on my admission as a country club might do.
2. I'd want to know who is invited to the Table of Holy Communion. Is it for members only? Is everyone who truly and earnestly repents of their sins welcome?
3. I'd want to know who is included or excluded from all levels of leadership including ordination.
4. I'd want those questions answered for my sake and the sake of my children who are going to learn by observation, as well as by instruction.
Church is more than a matter of where my friends attend, who has the best show in town, what music rocks and which minister rolls. It's about the truth of the Gospel and our inclusion in Christ.
What the Church needs now is every believer working with every other believer, giving everything they have to let everyone else know every wonderful thing about Jesus. That takes men and women, boys and girls, young and old, the ten talented and the one talented, the beginners and the elders, united in one great fellowship of love for the cause of Christ. That's why we need you on this team.
ChristianGlobe Networks, Inc., Faith Breaks, by J. Howard Olds
Overview: Just likethe first, Paul’s Second Missionary Journey (15:36–18:22), launches from Antioch (15:36), but not before a dispute between Paul and Barnabas. Barnabas wants to take John Mark with them, but Paul disagrees because John Mark had deserted the team on the first journey (15:37–38). So Barnabas takes Mark and sails to Cyprus, while Paul takes Silas and heads for Syria and Cilicia (15:38–41). Barnabas shows faith in Mark when others saw him as a lost cause. Interestingly, earlier Barnabas showed faith in Paul when he introduced him to the apostles in Jerusalem just after his conversion (Acts 9:26–28). Eventually Paul is reconciled with Mark and reaffirms his effectiveness in ministry (Col. 4:10; Philem. 24; 2Tim. 4:11).
Paul and Silas go to Derbe and then to Lystra, where Paul…
The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016
18 Paul stayed on in Corinth for some time. Then he left the brothers and sailed for Syria, accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila. Before he sailed, he had his hair cut off at Cenchrea because of a vow he had taken. 19 They arrived at Ephesus, where Paul left Priscilla and Aquila. He himself went into the synagogue and reasoned with the Jews. 20 When they asked him to spend more time with them, he declined. 21 But as he left, he promised, "I will come back if it is God's will." Then he set sail from Ephesus. 22 When he landed at Caesarea, he went up and greeted the church and then went down to Antioch.
23 After spending some time in Antioch, Paul set out from there and traveled from place to place throughout the region of Galatia and Phrygia, strengthening all the disciples.
24 Meanwhile a Jew named Apollos, a native of Alexandria, came to Ephesus. He was a learned man, with a thorough knowledge of the Scriptures. 25 He had been instructed in the way of the Lord, and he spoke with great fervor and taught about Jesus accurately, though he knew only the baptism of John. 26 He began to speak boldly in the synagogue. When Priscilla and Aquila heard him, they invited him to their home and explained to him the way of God more adequately.
27 When Apollos wanted to go to Achaia, the brothers encouraged him and wrote to the disciples there to welcome him. On arriving, he was a great help to those who by grace had believed. 28 For he vigorously refuted the Jews in public debate, proving from the Scriptures that Jesus was the Christ.
Luke’s description of Paul’s return to Antioch (18:18–22) provides the itinerary of Paul to Antioch through Ephesus, Caesarea, and Jerusalem. This brief account serves two additional functions. First, it emphasizes Paul’s connection with the Jewish believers and the Jerusalem church. The “vow” (18:18) that Paul takes most likely refers to the Nazirite vow that Jews took when dedicating themselves to God for a period of time (Num. 6:1–21). Paul’s cutting off his hair is probably an act prior to the observance of the vow that ends when he has his hair “shaved” (Acts 21:24; cf. Num. 6:18). Luke does not provide the specific occasion for this vow, but this brief note is sufficient in emphasizing Paul’s adherence to Jewish traditions. The note that “he went up to Jerusalem and greeted the church” (18:22) also highlights his connection with the center of Jewish Christianity. Second, this account also aims at introducing Paul’s return to Ephesus during his third missionary journey. In verse 21, he evokes his obedience to “God’s will” in his plan to return to Ephesus. His eventual return to Ephesus (18:24–19:41) is therefore to be understood as dictated by the will of God.
18:23–21:16 Review · Paul’s third missionary journey:The account of Paul’s third missionary journey begins with a note on Paul’s travels through the region of Galatia and Phrygia (18:23). The focus of the first episode in this section is, however, on a native of Alexandria who has moved to Ephesus (18:24–28). The description that Apollos is a “learned man” (18:24a) can also point to him being an “eloquent man” (NRSV), but the statement that follows, “with a thorough knowledge of the Scriptures” (18:24b), confirms that he is indeed a “learned man.” The phrase “with great fervor” in verse 25 can also be translated as “with the zeal of the Spirit” (cf. Rom. 12:11), but “he knew only the baptism of John” argues against this latter reading. Nevertheless, the fact that he “had been instructed in the way of the Lord” and he “taught about Jesus accurately” suggests that he is at least a believer. Moreover, his not being baptized again shows that this is not a deficiency for a preacher of the word. Whatever is missing in his knowledge and experience is amended by the teaching ministries of Priscilla and Aquila.
The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
The end of the “second” and the start of the “third missionary journey” are narrated here with almost breathless haste, as though Luke were anxious to have Paul start on his work at Ephesus. The brevity of the narrative leaves us guessing at a number of points as to where and why he went, but for the most part we can plot his course with reasonable confidence and make good sense of all that he did. Because of the broad similarity between this journey and that in 20:3–21:26—the common elements being a journey from Corinth to Jerusalem via Ephesus and Paul’s taking a vow—it has been proposed that this section is simply a Lukan construction based on the other and intended to keep Paul in touch with Jerusalem and in receipt of that church’s blessing, with the further motive of attributing to Paul a larger share in the establishment of the church in Ephesus. But if these verses were really written with those objectives in mind, surely Luke would have made a better fist of them than this. They give no result of Paul’s preaching in Ephesus, and they only hint at his going up to Jerusalem. On the other hand, there is no reason why he should not have made this journey at this time, and good reasons can be given for why he did.
18:18 During Paul’s eighteen months or more at Corinth, we may suppose that the church in Cenchrea (the eastern harbor) was also established (Rom. 16:1), and perhaps other churches, for in 2 Corinthians 1:1 we read of “the saints throughout Achaia.” But the day came when Paul felt that he must draw his work here to a close and return, if only briefly, to Syria (it is not certain whether this term is used here to include Judea or whether it simply indicates his final destination, with no reference to his visit to Judea). Before he left, Paul cut his hair in fulfillment of a vow that he had made, perhaps early in his stay at Corinth when he had been depressed and afraid (v. 9). These vows, based on the Nazirite vow of Numbers 6:1–21, appear to have been a common feature of Jewish piety (cf. 23:21–26; m. Nazir). Their conclusion was marked by the shaving of one’s head and the offering of sacrifice in the temple. Both acts were normally done in Jerusalem, but if the devotee was far from the city, he seems to have been allowed to trim his hair and to bring the trimmings to Jerusalem to be offered with the rest of his hair when his head was shaved (cf. Josephus, War, 2.309–314). This appears to have been what Paul did at Cenchrea, no doubt in a spirit of thanksgiving for all that God had done with him in Corinth. Luke’s mention of this trivial matter may have been intended to show how unwarranted were the Jewish and even Jewish-Christian attacks upon Paul for his supposed antipathy to their traditions (see further the disc. on 21:23f.).
Paul took ship at Cenchrea, whose harbor had been rebuilt shortly after 44 B.C. Lucius Apuleius (second century A.D.) describes it as “the most famous town of all the Corinthians, bordering upon the seas called Aegean and Saronic. There is a great and mighty haven,” he said, “frequented with ships of many and sundry nations” (Metamorphoses 10.35). He exaggerated. The harbor was nowhere near the size of Lecheum’s (the western port of Corinth). Nevertheless, it must have been a sizable town in Paul’s day. Priscilla and Aquila went with him. Presumably, Silas and Timothy stayed behind to superintend the work that Paul was leaving (see disc. on v. 23).
18:19–21 The ship’s first port of call was Ephesus. Here an impressive sight would have unfolded before the travelers’ eyes as they entered the wide mouth of the Cayster on which Ephesus was built. In ancient times ships could come right up to the city, which lay between the sea and Mount Coressus (in time the harbor silted up, and the ruins of Ephesus now lie in a swampy plain some four or five miles from the sea). From the harbor the main thoroughfare led to the heart of the city, and from this road Paul and his companions must have had their first introduction to the metropolis of the province of Asia. During this brief visit Paul went into the synagogue where he reasoned with the Jews (v. 19; see disc. on 9:20 and 17:2). The prohibition on his preaching in Asia was now apparently lifted (16:6), as indicated by his warm reception (v. 20). The Ephesian Jews must have already heard much about “the Way” and no doubt would like to have heard more. But Paul would not stay, promising instead that if God willed he would return (cf. 21:14; James 4:15). Considering their eagerness, there must have been some pressing reason for his not remaining in Ephesus and making the most of this opportunity. He had his vow to complete, of course, but he may also have wished to be in Jerusalem for one of the festivals, perhaps the Passover (cf. 20:16), for which he would have to hurry since it came early in the traveling season (see disc. on 27:9 and 28:11). But over and above these things, if he had indeed begun to glimpse a wider prospect for his missionary enterprise (see disc. on v. 17), he may have wished to see Antioch again, for that church could no longer be an effective center for his work, and to take his leave of them. Meanwhile, Priscilla and Aquila remained in Ephesus, so that by the time Paul returned a church had already been formed. They had not yet separated from the synagogue, but were an identifiable group within it, in touch with their brothers in Corinth (vv. 26f.) and probably holding additional meetings of their own in Aquila and Priscilla’s home (cf. 2:42; 1 Cor. 16:19, and for house churches, see disc. on 14:27 and notes).
18:22 While these developments were taking place in Ephesus, Paul went on to Caesarea and, presumably, to Jerusalem, where he greeted the church (cf. 21:18). The uncertainty about his precise movements lies in the fact that the Greek text does not name Jerusalem, but unless we make the assumption that this was his destination, we are left with Paul “going up” (from the harbor?) to the church in Caesarea and “going down” from that city to Antioch. In neither case is the verb appropriate if that sense was intended, whereas the idiom was frequently “to go up to Jerusalem” (cf. 11:2; 15:2; 25:1, 9) and “down” when leaving (cf. 24:1; 25:6, 7). We take it, then, that this was Luke’s meaning. The impression given is that Paul’s stay in Jerusalem was a short one (perhaps a week, to complete his vow), but it would have been long enough to observe the economic plight of the church and to determine to do something about it (see disc. on 19:21). Thence he returned to Syrian Antioch.
18:23 Here he made a stay of an indefinite period, perhaps until the following spring (A.D. 53?), after which he took to the road again on his “third missionary journey.” Retracing his earlier steps (see disc. on 15:40f.), he passed through the region of Galatia and Phrygia, that is, the region of southern Galatia, which lay more or less in a direct line with Ephesus (see disc. on 16:6). The verb “to go through” may mean that he preached as he went (see disc. on 8:4), thus strengthening all the disciples. In this way he would have visited the cities of his former journeys: Derbe, Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch. From here, the main road would have taken him through Colossae and Laodicea in the Lycus Valley to the Maeander and along the river to the coast. But he appears not to have gone that way (cf. Col. 2:1), but by another, shorter route through the valley of the Cayster. As far as we know, he had no companion for the journey to Ephesus, but he probably hoped to rendezvous with Timothy, who is next heard of in that city (1 Cor. 4:17; 16:10f.).
18:24 While Paul was making the journey described in the previous verses, Apollos arrived at Ephesus. He was a sufficiently important figure in the early church to warrant this notice of his coming to the metropolis. It serves also to show something of what was going on there before Paul’s return. By that time, Apollos had gone, but later Paul and Apollos were together in Ephesus, and it is clear from a number of references in Paul’s own writings that he regarded Apollos as a friend and a valued colleague (1 Cor. 3:5–9; 16:12; Titus 3:13). Apollos was a Jew, a native of Alexandria, and endowed with considerable gifts consistent with his city of origin (see note on 6:9). He was a learned man, where the Greek can mean “learned” or “eloquent,” and in this case probably both—he had a learning that he effectively communicated. More specifically, he had a thorough knowledge of the Scriptures. This was the basis of his preaching in both Ephesus and Corinth.
18:25 Apollos was already a Christian of sorts when he arrived at Ephesus and, to the extent that he understood it, was a great enthusiast for the faith. An expression is used that means literally “to boil in the spirit,” that is, his own human spirit, and so perhaps “to bubble over with enthusiasm.” This led him to speak and to teach (imperfects, indicating his habit) all that he knew about Jesus, though what he knew turned out to be incomplete. He had been instructed in the Way of the Lord (this implies that there was some kind of gospel preaching in Egypt by about A.D. 50). However, he knew only the baptism of John. What, then, was lacking that he had not received Christian baptism and that Priscilla and Aquila should find it necessary to explain “to him the way of God more adequately” (v. 26)? If the “disciples” of 19:1–7 are any guide, then we must suppose that he did not yet know of the Pentecostal event—the gift of the Spirit in token that the age of salvation had come (see notes on 2:17ff.)—and the significance that it gave to baptism. For unlike John’s, which merely anticipated the age of salvation, Christian baptism belonged to the new age, marking (among other things) the believer’s entry into the gift of the Spirit (see notes on 2:2ff. and disc. on 2:38; 19:4). Apollos may have accepted that Jesus was the Messiah without knowing the full extent of his messianic achievement. One wonders whether he even knew of the resurrection of Jesus.
18:26 Whatever his deficiencies, Apollos at least had the courage of his convictions. He first came to Aquila and Priscilla’s notice when he spoke boldly (about Jesus) in the synagogue at Ephesus. Afterwards they took him home and made good what was lacking in his instruction. The way of God that they explained to him is a convenient summary of the theme that runs through all the early speeches of Acts, namely, that God “had foretold through all the prophets” the things concerning the Messiah (3:18, 21; etc.) and that those things have now been fulfilled in the life, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus and in the gift of the Spirit. Luke does not say whether Apollos received Christian baptism (but cf. 19:5). If he did, it was probably at the hands of his instructors.
18:27–28 Later Apollos transferred to Achaia—these references seem always to indicate Corinth (cf. 19:1). The believers in Ephesus (see disc. on vv. 19–21) encouraged the move (or the Greek could mean that they encouraged the Corinthians to receive him) and wrote accordingly to the church in Achaia (v. 27). The idea of his going may have come from Priscilla and Aquila, thinking that Apollos’ training and learning would attract the attention of a Corinthian audience. Certainly he proved to be a great help to those who by grace had believed (v. 27). Or perhaps it was that he was able to help “by his (gift of) grace,” that is, by the knowledge and eloquence given to him by God. Either meaning is possible from the Greek. At all events, the Corinthians found in him a champion who was able to match the Jews in public debate in the synagogue (v. 28). The verb means that he “argued them down,” not necessarily convincing them, but, by bringing them to the test of Scripture, at least showing that their objections to Jesus as the Messiah were unwarranted. And not only was Apollos a help to believers, he was also used to bring some pagans into the fold (1 Cor. 3:5).
These verses give the impression that the church in Corinth had been under some pressure from the Jews since Paul’s departure and that it was by his grasp of the Scriptures especially that Apollos was best able to help. But it was not long before he was back in Ephesus, and we find him in 1 Corinthians 16:12 refusing Paul’s pressing request that he should revisit Corinth. The reason is not hard to find. In Corinth the people had begun to compare him with Paul, often to Paul’s disadvantage. Apollos’ eloquence and Alexandrian culture may have seemed superior to the simplicity of Paul’s preaching. Partisan feeling was aroused, and the two men who only wanted to be fellow workers (1 Cor. 3:3–10) were represented as rivals (1 Cor. 1:12f.; 3:4, 22; 4:6). Evidently this was as painful for Apollos as it was for Paul.
Additional Notes
18:18 He had his hair cut off at Cenchrea because of a vow he had taken: If the Greek grammar alone were heeded, these words would naturally be referred to Aquila. But it is difficult to see what point there would be in such a statement.
18:19 Paul left Priscilla and Aquila: The Greek reads very awkwardly here. It appears that at first Luke had simply written that Paul that “left Priscilla and Aquila … (and) sailed from Ephesus,” but that he later expanded the sentence by adding the intervening words.
18:23 After spending some time in Antioch, Paul set out from there: It is usual to take this as the beginning of the “third missionary journey.” But so little is made of it by Luke that there is some justification in the view that he himself did not see this as a third journey, but simply another phase of the second, which did not end until Paul reached Jerusalem in 21:17.
18:25 With great fervor: The literal sense of this phrase has been given in the discussion, but instead of his own spirit (as we have taken it) the reference could be to the Spirit of God. On this understanding, it is conceivable that Apollos’ faith had already brought him the gift of the Spirit before he received Christian baptism, or even that he did not receive the Christian rite, his earlier baptism being deemed sufficient in view of his charismata (see G. W. H. Lampe, The Seal of the Spirit [London: Longmans, Green, 1951], p. 66; see also disc. on 8:14ff. and 10:44). That Apollos had received the Spirit may have been assumed by Luke in his reference to his preaching “boldly” (v. 26; cf. 4:13; see disc. on 4:8).
Understanding the Bible Commentary Series by David J. Williams, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Direct Matches
Achaia is a region along the northern coast of the Peloponnesus, the southern peninsula of Greece. Paul’s letters to the Corinthians were sent to this region (1Cor. 16:15; 2Cor. 1:1). In the NT, the term also has a broader meaning, so that the phrase “Macedonia and Achaia” refers inclusively to all of Greece (Acts 19:21; Rom. 15:26; 1Thess. 1:78).
Alexandria was a Greek city founded in Egypt in 331 BC by Alexander the Great. It soon became the capital of Egypt. In the Bible, Alexandria is mentioned only in the book of Acts: the home of some of the Jews who opposed Stephen (6:9); the home of Apollos (18:24); the source of ships that helped carry Paul to Rome (27:6; 28:11).
Antioch of Pisidia. See Asia Minor, Cities of (Pisidian Antioch).
Antioch of Syria. The most important Antioch mentioned in the NT was the capital city of the Roman province of Syria. Syrian Antioch was an important political, economic, and religious center during the Roman period.
Antioch’s diverse population made for a great diversity of religions connected to the city. Its suburb of Daphne was a major worship site for paganism, and the city maintained a large Jewish population throughout its history. Additionally, it was to Antioch that many Jerusalem Christians fled during the early persecution of the church. Here, for the first time, the Jewish Christians began to intentionally focus on sharing the gospel with Gentiles (Acts 11:1921). The result was a large, multicultural, and vibrant church. The church at Antioch was known for its ethnic and cultural diversity, its generosity (sending an offering to Jerusalem during a famine [see 11:27–30]), and its heart for missions (serving as Paul’s headquarters for his three missionary journeys). Not surprisingly, it was at Antioch that Christ followers were first called “Christians” (11:26).
Apollos was born in Alexandria (Acts 18:24) and probably educated there. He came to Ephesus, perhaps on business, after Paul had left the city during his second missionary journey. In addition to his knowledge of the OT, Apollos had been instructed in the way of the Lord and was teaching accurately his knowledge of Jesus. He knew only the baptism of John—that is, the baptism of repentance. When Priscilla and Aquila “explained to him the way of God more adequately” (18:26), this probably entailed an explanation of the atoning significance of Jesus’ death, God’s vindication of Jesus in the resurrection, and the personal experience of the Holy Spirit for all believers. After ministering in Ephesus (18:24), he went to Corinth (19:1; cf. 1Cor. 3), where he was able to overwhelm the Jews in argument that Jesus was the Christ (Acts 18:28). Apollos returned to Ephesus sometime thereafter and was present in that city when Paul wrote 1Corinthians (1Cor. 16:8). Apollos probably remained a faithful member of the Pauline missionary band, for he is mentioned later in Paul’s letter to Titus and was probably a courier of that letter with Zenas (Titus 3:13).
Aquila and Priscilla were important coworkers with the apostle Paul in his missionary effort. They joined Paul in cooperative efforts and also worked in relative independence. They were Christian workers in what came to be important centers of early Christianity: Corinth, Ephesus, and Rome. Mentioned in the NT as a pair (Acts 18:18, 19, 26; Rom. 16:3; 1Cor. 16:19; 2 Tim. 4:19), four of these list Priscilla first, probably indicating her wealth, social status, or prominence in the Christian community.
The initiatory ritual of Christianity. This rite is of great significance in connecting the individual both to Christ and to the greater community of believers. Baptism carries an equal measure of symbolism and tradition, evoking a connection between OT covenantal circumcision and ritual cleansing and NT regeneration and redemption.
The immediate precursor of Christian baptism was the baptism of John the Baptist (Mark 1:4 pars.), a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins, preparing the hearts of the people for the coming Messiah. But when Jesus himself was baptized by John to “fulfill all righteousness” (Matt. 3:15) and to allow Jesus to identify with sinful humanity, he became the firstfruits of the new covenant. John emphasized that his baptism with water was inferior to the baptism “with the Holy Spirit and fire” that Jesus would bring (Matt. 3:11). Jesus’ disciples continued John’s baptism during his earthly ministry (John 4:12).
Baptism was immediately important in the early church. Jesus commanded the disciples to “make disciples..., baptizing them” (Matt. 28:19). The disciples replaced Judas from among those “who have been with us the whole time ... from John’s baptism” (Acts 1:21–22). Peter’s first sermon proclaims, “Repent and be baptized” (2:38). The apostles baptized new believers in Christ immediately (8:12–13, 38; 9:18; 10:48; 16:15, 33; 18:8; 19:5; 22:16).
For the apostle Paul, baptism represents a participation in the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Paul writes, “Don’t you know that all of us who were baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death? We were therefore buried with him through baptism into death” (Rom. 6:3–4); “In him you were ... buried with him in baptism, in which you were also raised with him through your faith in the working of God, who raised him from the dead” (Col. 2:11–12).
Built by Herod the Great between 22 and 10/9 BC and named in honor of Caesar Augustus, Caesarea was a major international seaport located on the Mediterranean coast about fifty-five miles northwest of Jerusalem. Also known as Caesarea Maritima or Caesarea Palestinae, it was built on the site of an earlier Phoenician trading station and town known as Strato’s Tower.
After Herod’s death in 4 BC, his eldest son, Archelaus, succeeded him as king. Augustus removed Archelaus from power in AD 6, and his kingdom, including Caesarea, was absorbed into the Roman Empire. The city was then made the seat of Roman government in the province of Judea. Pontius Pilate governed Judea from Caesarea when he presided over Jesus’ trial.
Caesarea figures prominently in the establishment of Christianity, according to the book of Acts. Philip, a deacon in the Jerusalem church, appears to have brought Christianity to the city (8:440). At the beginning of Paul’s ministry, threats from the Jews in Damascus forced Paul to flee to Caesarea and from there to Tarsus (9:30). Caesarea is where the centurion Cornelius and his household became the first Gentile converts, and where Peter received God’s revelation regarding the acceptance of Gentiles into the kingdom of God (10:1–48).
Caesarea appears to have been an urban center for the early Christian movement. Paul came to the city at the end of his second and third missionary journeys (Acts 18:22; 21:8). On his way to Jerusalem, Paul stayed with Philip, who lived in Caesarea along with his four prophesying daughters (8:40; 21:8–9). It was in Caesarea that Paul made his decision to go to Jerusalem, despite Agabus’s prophecy that the Jews would deliver him over to the Gentiles and the urging of Paul’s companions and the local people for him not to go (21:10–13). Following Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem, he was sent to Caesarea to appear before the governor Felix and remained imprisoned there for two years. When Felix was succeeded by Festus, Paul appealed to Caesar and was sent to Rome (25:11).
A seaport named for Cenchrias (a child of Poseidon) and located seven miles southeast of Corinth. Here Paul shaved his head as part of a vow he had made (Acts 18:18). Phoebe is called “a deacon of the church in Cenchreae” (Rom. 16:1).
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesus followers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christ embodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in human history.
Birth and childhood. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem during the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesus was probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’s death (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of a virginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governor Quirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place in Bethlehem (2:15). Both the census and the governorship at the time of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars. Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to either confirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must be determined on the basis of one’s view regarding the general reliability of the Gospel tradition.
On the eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keeping with the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus” (Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home of his parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel of Luke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth in strength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke also contains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Baptism, temptation, and start of ministry. After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke 3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring to him as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instant ministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into the wilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that the temptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Luke identify three specific temptations by the devil, though their order for the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine intervention after jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’s kingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation, quoting Scripture in response.
Matthew and Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum in Galilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13; Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirty years of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity or perhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of the Levites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning of Jesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples and the sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Galilean ministry. The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and around Galilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that the kingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ first teaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30); the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for his calling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection and suffering.
All the Gospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in his Galilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke 5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioning of the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers is recorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministry is the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke 6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, in particular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synoptics focus on healings and exorcisms.
During Jesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with his identity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority (Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family (3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner of Beelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesus told parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growing kingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humble beginnings (4:1–32).
The Synoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful. No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority or ability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized many demons (5:1–13), raised the dead (5:35–42), fed five thousand (6:30–44), and walked on water (6:48–49).
In the later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew and traveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are not written with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns to Galilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fear resolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee, where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ disciples with lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed the Pharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents (7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demanding a sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, who confessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus did provide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesus withdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician woman requested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans had long resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality that allotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere “crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,” Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-mute man in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’s confession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’ travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The city was the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judean ministry. Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry as he resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually led to his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem into three phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27). The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of the journey. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, and the demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem (Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45; Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journey toward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvation and judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase of the journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are the main themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Social conflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposte interactions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel (Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomic feathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who had little value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16; Luke 18:15–17).
Passion week, death, and resurrection. Each of the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with the crowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark 11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Luke describes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during which Jesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
In Jerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17). Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because the whole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “began looking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segment of Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’ authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions (12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation (12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s own destruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, Judas Iscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’ arrest (14:10–11).
At the Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a new covenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29; Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned the disciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark 14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and later he prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agony and submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42; Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial, crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15; Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18). Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission by making disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8) and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return (Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
The nature of the church is too broad to be exhausted in the meaning of one word. To capture its significance, the NT authors utilize a rich array of metaphorical descriptions. Nevertheless, there are those metaphors that seem to dominate the biblical pictures of the church, five of which call for comment: the people of God, the kingdom of God, the eschatological temple of God, the bride of Christ, and the body of Christ.
The people of God. Essentially, the concept of the people of God can be summed up in the covenantal phrase: “I will be their God, and they will be my people” (see Exod. 6:67; 19:5; Lev. 26:9–14; Jer. 7:23; 30:22; 32:37–40; Ezek. 11:19–20; 36:22–28; Acts 15:14; 2Cor. 6:16; Heb. 8:10–12; Rev. 21:3). Thus, the people of God are those in both the OT and the NT eras who responded to God by faith and whose spiritual origin rests exclusively in God’s grace.
The kingdom of God. Many scholars have maintained that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus inaugurated the kingdom of God, producing the overlapping of the two ages. The kingdom has already dawned but is not yet complete. The first aspect pertains to Jesus’ first coming, and the second aspect relates to his second coming. In other words, the age to come has broken into this age, and now the two exist simultaneously. This background is crucial in ascertaining the relationship between the church and the kingdom of God, because the church also exists in the tension that results from the overlapping of the two ages. Accordingly, one may define the church as the foreshadowing of the kingdom. Two ideas flow from this definition: first, the church is related to the kingdom of God; second, the church is not equal to the kingdom of God.
The church and the kingdom of God are related. Not until after the resurrection of Jesus does the NT speak with regularity about the church. However, there are early signs of the church in the teaching and ministry of Jesus, in both general and specific ways. In general, Jesus anticipated the later official formation of the church in that he gathered to himself the twelve disciples, who constituted the beginnings of eschatological Israel—in effect, the remnant. More specifically, Jesus explicitly referred to the church in two passages: Matt. 16:18–19; 18:17. In the first passage Jesus promised that he would build his church despite satanic opposition, thus assuring the ultimate success of his mission. The notion of the church overcoming the forces of evil coincides with the idea that the kingdom of God will prevail over its enemies and bespeaks the intimate association between the church and the kingdom. The second passage relates to the future organization of the church, not unlike the Jewish synagogue practices of Jesus’ day.
The church and the kingdom of God are not identical. As intimately related as the church and the kingdom of God are, the NT does not equate the two, as is evident in the fact that the early Christians preached the kingdom, not the church (Acts 8:12; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). The NT identifies the church as the people of the kingdom (e.g., Rev. 5:10), not the kingdom itself. Moreover, the church is the instrument of the kingdom. This is especially clear from Matt. 16:18–19, where the preaching of Peter and the church become the keys to opening up the kingdom of God to all who would enter.
The eschatological temple of God. Both the OT and Judaism anticipated the rebuilding of the temple in the future kingdom of God (e.g., Ezek. 40–48; Hag. 2:1–9). Jesus hinted that he was going to build such a structure (Matt. 16:18; Mark 14:58; John 2:19–22). Pentecost witnessed to the beginning of the fulfillment of that dream in that when the Spirit inhabited the church, the eschatological temple was formed (Acts 2:16–36). Other NT writers also perceived that the presence of the Spirit in the Christian community constituted the new temple of God (1Cor. 3:16–17; 2Cor. 6:14–7:1; Eph. 2:19–22; see also Gal. 4:21–31; 1Pet. 2:4–10). However, that the eschatological temple is not yet complete is evident in the preceding passages, especially in their emphasis on the need for the church to grow toward maturity in Christ, which will be fully accomplished only at the parousia (second coming of Christ). In the meantime, Christians, as priests of God, are to perform their sacrificial service to the glory of God (Rom. 12:1–2; Heb. 13:15; 1Pet. 2:4–10).
The bride of Christ. The image of marriage is applied to God and Israel in the OT (see Isa. 54:5–6; 62:5; Hos. 2:7). Similar imagery is applied to Christ and the church in the NT. Christ, the bridegroom, has sacrificially and lovingly chosen the church to be his bride (Eph. 5:25–27). Her responsibility during the betrothal period is to be faithful to him (2Cor. 11:2; Eph. 5:24). At the parousia the official wedding ceremony will take place, and with it the eternal union of Christ and his wife will be actualized (Rev. 19:7–9; 21:1–2).
The body of Christ. The body of Christ as a metaphor for the church is unique to the Pauline literature and constitutes one of the most significant concepts therein (Rom. 12:4–5; 1Cor. 12:12–27; Eph. 4:7–16; Col. 1:18). The primary purpose of the metaphor is to demonstrate the interrelatedness of diversity and unity within the church, especially with reference to spiritual gifts. The body of Christ is the last Adam (1Cor. 15:45), the new humanity of the end time that has appeared in history. However, Paul’s usage of the image, like the metaphor of the new temple, indicates that the church, as the body of Christ, still has a long way to go spiritually. It is not yet complete.
One of the largest, wealthiest, and most prestigious cities in ancient Greece. Corinth is located about fifty miles west of Athens on the narrow isthmus that connects mainland Greece with the Peloponnesus.
Corinth had two harbors and Paul sailed from one of them to Syria to end his second missionary journey (Acts 18:18). Corinth’s location made it an international crossroads of commerce and travel. Because of the narrowness of the isthmus, it controlled the land routes between the Peloponnesus and mainland Greece.
Corinth boasted the most impressive acropolis in Greece, its Acrocorinth towering eighteen hundred feet above the city. The Acrocorinth served as a fortress and hosted temples, the most famous of which was the temple of Aphrodite, which in the old city (destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC) had boasted a thousand temple slaves and prostitutes. Its presence contributed to Corinth’s reputation as an excessively immoral city. A Greek verb was coined, korinthiazomai (lit., “to Corinthianize”), which meant “to practice sexual immorality.”
By the time of Paul’s arrival, Corinth was one of the most important commercial centers in the entire Roman Empire and the largest city in Greece, with a free population of about 300,000 and an additional 460,000 slaves. Corinth had a significant Jewish population, especially after AD 49, when the Jews were expelled from Rome (Acts 18:2). During Paul’s year and a half of ministry, he regularly argued in the synagogue (18:4). An inscription from the synagogue’s lintel has been found. In AD 51 many of the Jews brought Paul before Gallio, the proconsul of Achaia, on charges of “persuading the people to worship God in ways contrary to the law” (18:13). As Paul stood at the bēma (judgment seat), Gallio dismissed the charges and expelled the Jews from the court (18:1217). The bēma, a platform where speakers stood and citizens appeared before officials, has been located and identified by archaeologists. Archaeologists have also found near the theater an inscription that reads, “Erastus, in return for his aedileship, laid this pavement at his own expense.” This is likely the same Erastus who was Corinth’s city treasurer and who became a Christian (Rom. 16:23; 2Tim. 4:20). Corinth played a significant role in Paul’s ministry, as he visited it on multiple occasions (1Cor. 12:14; 13:1), wrote 1–2Corinthians to its church, and likely wrote Romans and 1–2Thessalonians from there. Other early church leaders also ministered in Corinth, such as Apollos (Acts 19:1).
A cross is an upright wooden beam or post on which persons were either tied or nailed as a means of torture and execution. The Latin cross was shaped like a t and was the type most commonly used by the Romans. Jesus was crucified probably on a Latin cross, which allowed for a convenient place for a sign (called a titlos in John 19:19) to be placed above his head (Matt. 27:37 pars.).
Not long before the Romans took over Palestine, the Jewish ruler Alexander Jannaeus crucified about eight hundred Pharisees who opposed him in 86 BC. This gruesome event was out of character for the Jewish nation and was frowned upon by the Jews of the day as well as by the later Jewish historian Josephus. But it was the Romans who perfected crucifixion as a means of torture and execution. The Romans called crucifixion “slaves’ punishment” because it was intended for the lowest members of society. It became the preferred method of execution for political crimes such as desertion, spying, rebellion, and insurrection. Roman crucifixion was common in NT times and extended well into the fourth century AD.
As for the significance of Jesus’ crucifixion, the OT teaches that it is blood that makes atonement for sin (Lev. 17:11). Just as sacrificial lambs shed their blood on the altar for the sins of Israel, Jesus shed his blood on the cross for the sins of the world (John 1:29). The crucifixion of Jesus was the greatest atoning event in history. His blood, which provided the means for a new covenant, was poured out for many on the cross (Matt. 26:28). The cross, as gruesome as it was, was the means through which Christ died “for our sins” (Gal. 1:4). Jesus freely scorned the shame of the cross so that we might be reconciled to God by his shed blood (Col. 1:20; Heb. 12:2).
Jesus also bore the curse of God in our place when he died on the cross. The one who hangs on a tree is divinely cursed (Deut. 21:23). God’s curse is a curse upon sin, death, and fallenness. Jesus took God’s curse upon himself in order to redeem us from that curse (Gal. 3:13).
Jesus demonstrated the humble nature of his mission and ministry by his obedience to death, even death on the cross (Phil. 2:8). For Jesus the cross was not simply his martyrdom, as if he simply died for a worthy cause; it was the pinnacle example of obedience and love in the Bible. Jesus called his followers to take up a cross and follow his example of selfless sacrifice (Matt. 16:24). Jesus’ cross is a symbol of his love, obedience, and selflessness.
Most of all, the cross reveals the unconditional love of God, who offered his Son as the atoning sacrifice for sin (John 3:16; 1John 4:10). The brutal cross reveals the beautiful love of Jesus, who willingly laid down his life (1John 3:16).
An ethnic-geographic area in northern Asia Minor inhabited primarily by peoples of Gaulic and Celtic extraction since the mid-fourth century BC. In 25 BC the Romans conferred provincial status not only on the northern ethnic-geographic Galatian area, but also on parts of Pontus, Phrygia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia, farther to the south. Some of the towns that Paul visited on his first missionary journey (Acts 1314) were in the southern part of this area: Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe. Very little evidence remains attesting to the presence of either Jews or Christians in the Roman provincial area of Galatia in the first or second century AD, beyond reference in the NT and Christian writings drawing from the NT.
The location of the Galatian churches to which Paul writes in his letter to the Galatians remains a thorny problem. On the one hand, the address (Gal. 1:2) naturally seems to indicate the ethnic-geographic area of the north. On the other hand, if one takes Acts seriously, Paul never traveled in that area and thus had no chance to proclaim the gospel to the ethnic Galatians. Even Acts 16:6 places Paul over 125 miles southwest of this area. Thus, some scholars adopt the South Galatian hypothesis: Paul addresses his letter to people living in the southern part of the Roman province of Galatia and its environs.
Grace is the nucleus, the critical core element, of the redemptive and sanctifying work of the triune God detailed throughout the entire canon of Scripture. The variegated expressions of grace are rooted in the person and work of God, so that his graciousness and favor effectively demonstrated in every aspect of the created realm glorify him as they are shared and enjoyed with one another.
The biblical terminology informing an understanding of grace defines it as a gift or a favorable reaction or disposition toward someone. Grace is generosity, thanks, and good will between humans and from God to humans. Divine expressions of grace are loving, merciful, and effective. The biblical texts provide a context for a more robust understanding of divine gift. The overall redemptive-historical context of grace is the desire of the eternal God to bring glory to himself through a grace-based relationship with his creation. The Creator-Redeemer gives grace, and the recipients of grace give him glory.
The central city and capital of ancient Israel. Throughout its history, the city has also been referred to variously as Zion, Jebus, Mount Moriah, and the City of David.
The name “Jerusalem” occurs more than 650 times in the OT, particularly in the history of Israel, and in the NT more than 140 times. The OT prophets used the city as a symbol of God’s dealing with his people and his plan. Jerusalem is viewed collectively as God’s abode, his chosen place, and his sovereignty, while its destruction is also representative of God’s judgment on apostasy among his people (e.g., Jer. 7:115; 26:18–19; Mic. 3:12). The rebuilding of the city represents the hope and grace of God (e.g., Isa. 40:1–2; 52:1, 7–8; 60–62; Jer. 30:18–19; 31:38–39; Ezek. 5:5; Hag. 2:6–8; Zech. 8:3–8). Like the writers of the OT, the NT authors spoke of Jerusalem in metaphorical and eschatological terms. Paul used Jerusalem to contrast the old and the new covenants (Gal. 4:24–26), and the writer of Hebrews used it as the place of the new covenant, sealed through the blood of Jesus (Heb. 12:22–24). In Revelation the concept of a new Jerusalem is related to the future kingdom of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:1–22:5).
Jerusalem is located in the Judean hill country, about 2,700 feet above sea level. It borders the Judean desert to the east. The city expanded and contracted in size over various hills and valleys. There are two major ridges (Eastern and Western Hills) separated by the Tyropoeon Valley. The Eastern Hill contains a saddle, the Ophel Hill, and north of this is the traditional site of Mount Moriah, where later the temple was constructed. The Eastern Hill was always occupied, since the only water source is the Gihon spring, located in the Kidron Valley. Two other ridges were important for the city, as they were used for extramural suburbs, cemeteries, and quarries. To the east is the Mount of Olives, which is separated from the Eastern Hill by the Kidron Valley. To the west of the Western Hill is the Central Ridge Route, separated by the Hinnom Valley.
A common name in first-century Judaism. The Greek name Iōannēs comes from the Hebrew name “Yohanan.” (1)The Baptist or Baptizer, he was the son of the priest Zechariah and Elizabeth. (See John the Baptist.) (2)The son of Zebedee, he was an apostle originally belonging to the inner circle of the twelve main disciples of Jesus. (See John the Apostle.) (3) John Mark, a cousin of Barnabas (Col. 4:10) and the son of Mary (Acts 12:12). (See Mark, John.) (4)The elder. Both 2John and 3John claim authorship by “the elder” (2John 1; 3John 1). Traditionally, all three Johannine Letters, the Gospel of John, and sometimes the Revelation of John have been attributed to John the apostle. However, modern scholarship often attributes 2John and 3John, and sometimes 1John, to “the elder”—John the elder. (5)The seer, the author of the book of Revelation (see 1:1, 4, 9; 22:8). Some scholars ascribe the authorship of Revelation to John the apostle, in line with the view of the church father Irenaeus. Other scholars ascribe the writing of Revelation to a certain John the elder. The book of Revelation does not further identify the author. However, the author is among the prophets, a seer, and his name is “John”—hence, John the seer.
The English word “messiah” derives from the Hebrew verb mashakh, which means “to anoint.” The Greek counterpart of the Hebrew word for “messiah” (mashiakh) is christos, which in English is “Christ.”
In English translations of the Bible, the word “messiah” (“anointed one”) occurs rarely in the OT. In the OT, kings, prophets, and priests were “anointed” with oil as a means of consecrating or setting them apart for their respective offices. Prophets and priests anointed Israel’s kings (1Sam. 16:1 13; 2Sam. 2:4, 7).
The expectation for a “messiah,” or “anointed one,” arose from the promise given to David in the Davidic covenant (2Sam. 7). David was promised that from his seed God would raise up a king who would reign forever on his throne. Hopes for such an ideal king began with Solomon and developed further during the decline (cf. Isa. 9:1–7) and especially after the collapse of the Davidic kingdom.
The harsh reality of exile prompted Israel to hope that God would rule in such a manner. A number of psalms reflect the desire that an ideal son of David would come and rule, delivering Israel from its current plight of oppression. Hence, in Ps. 2 God declares that his son (v.7), who is the Lord’s anointed one (v.2), will receive “the nations [as] your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession” (v.8). God promises that “you will rule them with an iron scepter; you will dash them to pieces like pottery” (v.9; see NIV footnote). Jesus demonstrates great reticence in using the title “Messiah.” In the Synoptic Gospels he almost never explicitly claims it. The two key Synoptic passages where Jesus accepts the title are themselves enigmatic. In Mark’s version of Peter’s confession (8:29), Jesus does not explicitly affirm Peter’s claim, “You are the Messiah,” but instead goes on to speak of the suffering of the Son of Man. Later, Jesus is asked by the high priest Caiaphas at his trial, “Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One?” (Mark 14:60). In Mark 14:62, Jesus answers explicitly with “I am,” while in Matt. 26:64, he uses the more enigmatic “You have said so.” Jesus then goes on to describe himself as the exalted Son of Man who will sit at Yahweh’s right hand.
Jesus no doubt avoided the title because it risked communicating an inadequate understanding of the kingdom and his messianic role. Although the Messiah was never a purely political figure in Judaism, he was widely expected to destroy Israel’s enemies and secure its physical borders. Psalms of Solomon portrays the coming “son of David” as one who will “destroy the unrighteous rulers” and “purge Jerusalem from Gentiles who trample her to destruction” (Pss. Sol. 17.21–23). To distance himself from such thinking, Jesus never refers to himself as “son of David” and “king of Israel/the Jews” as other characters do in the Gospels (Matt. 12:23; 21:9, 15; Mark 10:47; 15:2; John 1:49; 12:13; 18:33). When Jesus was confronted by a group of Jews who wanted to make him into such a king, he resisted them (John 6:15).
In Mark 12:35–37, Jesus also redefines traditional understandings of the son of David in his short discussion on Ps. 110:1: he is something more than a mere human son of David. Combining Jesus’ implicit affirmation that he is the Messiah in Mark 8:30 with his teaching about the Son of Man in 8:31, we see that Jesus is a Messiah who will “suffer many things and be rejected by the elders, the chief priests, and the teachers of the law” (8:31) and through whom redemption will come (10:45). Jesus came not to defeat the Roman legions, but to bring victory over Satan, sin, and death.
A Pharisee commissioned by Jesus Christ to preach the gospel to Gentiles. His Jewish name was “Saul” (Acts 9:4; 13:9), but he preferred using his Roman name, especially when he signed his letters.
By our best estimates, Paul spent about thirty years preaching the gospel of Jesus Christ (AD 3467)—a ministry that can be divided roughly into three decades. The first decade of his ministry (AD 34–46) has been called the “silent years,” as we have few details from Acts or the Pauline Epistles about his activities. For example, we know that he preached in Damascus for a while and spent some time in Arabia (a total of three years [Gal. 1:17–18]). He made a quick trip to Jerusalem to meet Peter and James the brother of Jesus. Then he returned home to Tarsus, evidently preaching there for several years, until Barnabas brought him to Antioch in Syria to help with the ministry of this mixed congregation of Jews and Gentiles (Acts 9:26–30; 11:25–26). In the second decade of his ministry (AD 46–59), Paul spent most of his life on the road, an itinerant ministry of preaching the gospel and planting churches from Cyprus to Corinth. For most of the third decade (AD 59–67), Paul ministered the gospel from prison, spending over two years imprisoned in Caesarea, another two to three years in a Roman prison (Acts ends here), released for a brief time (two years?) before his final arrest and imprisonment in Rome, where, according to church tradition, he was executed.
During his itinerant ministry, Paul traveled Roman roads that led him to free cities (Ephesus, Thessalonica, Athens) and Roman colonies (Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe, Troas, Philippi, Corinth). Founding churches in urban centers afforded Paul more opportunities for ministry and for his work of making and repairing tents. Traveling within the borders of the Roman Empire also provided a better chance of protection as a citizen. At first, Paul and Barnabas covered familiar territory: Cyprus (Barnabas’s home region) and Anatolia (Paul’s home region). Then, with successive journeys Paul and other missionary companions branched out to Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Achaia. Some of the towns that Paul visited were small and provincial (Derbe, Lystra); others were major cities of great economic and intellectual commerce (Ephesus, Corinth, Athens). In the midst of such cultural diversity, Paul found receptive ears among a variety of ethnic groups: Gauls, Phrygians and Lycaonians, Greeks, Romans, and Jews. Previously, Paul’s Gentile converts had worshiped many gods (local, ethnic, and imperial), offered sacrifices at many shrines and temples, and joined in all the religious festivals (often involving immoral and ungodly practices). After believing the gospel, Paul’s predominantly Gentile churches turned from their idolatrous ways to serve “the living and true God” (1Thess. 1:9). Their exclusive devotion to one God quickly led to economic and political problems, for both Paul’s converts and the cities of their residence. No more offerings for patron gods, no more support for local synagogues or the imperial cult—Paul’s converts were often persecuted for their newly found faith by local religious guilds (idol makers!) and civic leaders courting Roman favor (Acts 17:6–9; 19:23–41; Phil. 1:27–30; 1Thess. 2:14–16). Indeed, Paul often was run out of town as a troublemaker who preached a message that threatened both the Jewish and the Roman ways of life (Acts 16:19–24; Phil. 3:17–4:1). It is no wonder that Paul’s activities eventually landed him in a Roman prison. It was only a matter of time before his reputation as a “lawbreaker” caught up with him (Acts 21:21). But that did not stop Paul. Whether as a prisoner or a free man, Paul proclaimed the gospel of Jesus Christ until the day he died.
Paul was a tentmaker, a missionary, a writer, a preacher, a teacher, a theologian, an evangelist, a mentor, a prophet, a miracle worker, a prisoner, and a martyr. His life story reads like the tale of three different men: a devout Pharisee, a tireless traveler, an ambitious writer. He knew the Scriptures better than did most people. He saw more of the world than did most merchants. He wrote some of the longest letters known at that time. To his converts, he was a faithful friend. To his opponents, he was an irrepressible troublemaker. But, according to Paul, he was nothing more or less than the man whom God had called through Jesus Christ to take the gospel to the ends of the earth.
An inland territory in west-central Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). Biblical mention of Phrygia occurs primarily in the book of Acts. Such occurrences include the presence of Phrygian Jews in Jerusalem at the first Pentecost (2:10), the evangelism of Paul and Barnabas at the Phrygian cities of Pisidian Antioch and Iconium (13:1414:4), the passing through Phrygia by Paul, Silas, and Timothy on their way west through Asia Minor (16:6), and the travels of Paul through “the region of Galatia and Phrygia” (18:23). Other biblical accounts include Col. 1:7; 4:12–13, which cites the work of Epaphras in three Phrygian cities, and Rev. 1:11; 3:14–22, which addresses the Phrygian church at Laodicea as one of the seven churches of Asia.
In the world of the Bible, a person was viewed as a unity of being with the pervading breath and thus imprint of the loving and holy God. The divine-human relationship consequently is portrayed in the Bible as predominantly spiritual in nature. God is spirit, and humankind may communicate with him in the spiritual realm. The ancients believed in an invisible world of spirits that held most, if not all, reasons for natural events and human actions in the visible world.
The OT writers used the common Hebrew word ruakh (“wind” or “breath”) to describe force and even life from the God of the universe. In its most revealing first instance, God’s ruakh hovered above the waters of the uncreated world (Gen. 1:2). In the next chapter of Genesis a companion word, neshamah (“breath”), is used as God breathed into Adam’s nostrils “the breath of life” (2:7). God thus breathed his own image into the first human being. Humankind’s moral obligations in the remainder of the Bible rest on this breathing act of God.
The OT authors often employ ruakh simply to denote air in motion or breath from a person’s mouth. However, special instances of the use of ruakh include references to the very life of a person (Gen. 7:22; Ps. 104:29), an attitude or emotion (Gen. 41:8; Num. 14:24; Ps. 77:3), the negative traits of pride or temper (Ps. 76:12), a generally good disposition (Prov. 11:13; 18:14), the seat of conversion (Ezek. 18:31; 36:26), and determination given by God (2Chron. 36:22; Hag. 1:14).
The NT authors used the Greek term pneuma to convey the concept of spirit. In the world of the NT, the human spirit was understood as the divine part of human reality as distinct from the material realm. The spirit appears conscious and capable of rejoicing (Luke 1:47). Jesus was described by Luke as growing and becoming “strong in spirit” (1:80). In “spirit” Jesus “knew” what certain teachers of the law were thinking in their hearts (Mark 2:8). Likewise, Jesus “was deeply moved in spirit and troubled” at the sickness of a loved one (John 11:33). At the end of his life, Jesus gave up his spirit (John 19:30).
According to Jesus, the spirit is the place of God’s new covenant work of conversion and worship (John 3:5; 4:24). He declared the human spirit’s dependence on God and ascribed great virtue to those people who were “poor in spirit” (Matt. 5:3).
Human beings who were possessed by an evil spirit were devalued in Mediterranean society. In various places in the Synoptic Gospels and the book of Acts, either Jesus or the disciples were involved in exorcisms of such spirits (Matt. 8:2833; Mark 1:21–28; 7:24–30; 9:14–29; 5:1–20; 9:17–29; Luke 8:26–33; 9:37–42; Acts 5:16).
The apostle Paul pointed to the spirit as the seat of conversion (Rom. 7:6; 1Cor. 5:5). He described believers as facing a struggle between flesh and spirit in regard to living a sanctified life (Rom. 8:2–17; Gal. 5:16–17). A contradiction seems apparent in Pauline thinking as he appears to embrace Greek dualistic understanding of body (flesh) and spirit while likewise commanding that “spirit, soul and body be kept blameless” (1Thess. 5:23). However, the Christian struggle between flesh and Spirit (the Holy Spirit) centers around the believer’s body being dead because of sin but the spirit being alive because of the crucified and resurrected Christ (Rom. 8:10). Believers therefore are encouraged to lead a holistic life, lived in the Spirit.
In English, the word “synagogue” refers either to a Jewish congregation or to the place where that congregation meets. Synagogues of the biblical era functioned as both religious and civic centers for the Jewish community.
Since synagogues were institutions with a documented history no earlier than the third century BC, they are not mentioned in the OT. The Greek word from which the English one is derived does appear frequently in the LXX, but always with a general reference to a gathering, assembly, or meeting.
Synagogues frequently were locations of the teaching and healing ministry of Jesus. He began preaching the kingdom of God, teaching, and performing healing miracles in Galilean synagogues (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; 12:9; 13:54; Mark 1:21 29, 39; 3:1; 6:2; Luke 4:15–38, 44; 6:6–11; 13:10–17; John 6:59; 18:20). Later, the apostle Paul customarily initiated his mission work in the local synagogue at each of his destinations (Acts 9:19–20; 13:5, 14–15; 14:1; 17:1, 10, 17; 18:1–8; 19:8).
The last (and, from a twenty-first-century perspective, most controversial) use of the word “synagogue” in Scripture is the difficult phrase “synagogue of Satan” (Rev. 2:9; 3:9), which must be read in its context. This was written in response to the significant persecution in Asia Minor of the churches at Smyrna and Philadelphia by Jews who were in collusion with the Roman authorities. They were falsely accusing Jewish and Gentile Christian believers, creating unspeakable suffering for them. This phrase, intended to encourage Christian perseverance, implies that the churches in view represented true Israel, while their accusers were false Jews.
The Syrian-Arabian Desert is located within the hollow of the Fertile Crescent. “Syria” refers to a west Asian Semitic culture along with its distinct language, Syriac. However, Syria also was known as a province of the Roman Empire. Syrian Antioch became an important center of early Christianity. The city was located on the Old Silk Route, the international trade route along the Mediterranean Sea that extended through central Asia to China.
Direct Matches
The most significant role that Apollos plays in the NT is,interestingly, not related to the narrative about him or his servicein the advance of the gospel. The name “Apollos” was usedby immature Christians in Corinth as a figurehead for their group.They competed with other Corinthian groups for status and honor,following the practices of the secular culture with little Christiandiscernment. Apollos’s outstanding communication skills,knowledge, and skill at argumentation fit the secular Corinthiancultural values of intellect, knowledge, wisdom, and rhetoricalskill. The group may have used his name without his approval and notin his presence. Apparently, Apollos was rather put off by theCorinthians; Paul asked Apollos to go to Corinth, but he preferred tominister in Ephesus (1 Cor. 16:12).
Apolloswas born in Alexandria (Acts 18:24) and probably educated there. Hecame to Ephesus, perhaps on business, after Paul had left the cityduring his second missionary journey. In addition to his knowledge ofthe OT, Apollos had been instructed in the way of the Lord (i.e.,partial Jesus tradition) and was teaching accurately his knowledge ofJesus. He knew only the baptism of John—that is, the baptism ofrepentance. When Priscilla and Aquila “explained to him the wayof God more adequately” (18:26), this probably entailed anexplanation of the atoning significance of Jesus’ death, God’svindication of Jesus in the resurrection, and the personal experienceof the Holy Spirit for all believers. After ministering in Ephesus(18:24), he went to Corinth (19:1; cf. 1 Cor. 3), where he wasable to overwhelm the Jews in argument that Jesus was the Christ(Acts 18:28). Apollos returned to Ephesus sometime thereafter and waspresent in that city when Paul wrote 1 Corinthians (1 Cor.16:8). Apollos probably remained a faithful member of the Paulinemissionary band, for he is mentioned later in Paul’s letter toTitus and was probably a courier of that letter with Zenas (Titus3:13).
Somehave suggested that Apollos was the author of Hebrews, but this isonly speculation.
Built by Herod the Great between 22 and 10/9 BC and named inhonor of Caesar Augustus, Caesarea was a major international seaportlocated on the Mediterranean coast about fifty-five miles northwestof Jerusalem. Also known as Caesarea Maritima or Caesarea Palestinae,it was built on the site of an earlier Phoenician trading station andtown known as Strato’s Tower. The ancient historian Josephusdescribes Herod’s ambitious building program for the city (J.W.1.408–15; Ant. 15.331–41), which included palaces, anamphitheater, a theater, a temple dedicated to Caesar, amarketplace, and a great harbor complex called “Sebastos.”The immense harbor complex reflected Herod’s great plans forthe city, particularly in regard to its maritime role, and Caesareadid achieve international prominence.
AfterHerod’s death in 4 BC, his eldest son, Archelaus, succeeded himas king. Augustus removed Archelaus from power in AD 6, and hiskingdom, including Caesarea, was absorbed into the Roman Empire. Thecity was then made the seat of Roman government in the province ofJudea. Pontius Pilate governed Judea from Caesarea when he presidedover Jesus’ trial.
Caesareafigures prominently in the establishment of Christianity, accordingto the book of Acts. Philip, a deacon in the Jerusalem church,appears to have brought Christianity to the city (8:4–40). Atthe beginning of Paul’s ministry, threats from the Jews inDamascus forced Paul to flee to Caesarea and from there to Tarsus(9:30). Caesarea is where the centurion Cornelius and his householdbecame the first Gentile converts, and where Peter received God’srevelation regarding the acceptance of Gentiles into the kingdom ofGod (10:1–48).
Caesareaappears to have been an urban center for the early Christianmovement. Paul came to the city at the end of his second and thirdmissionary journeys (Acts 18:22; 21:8). On his way to Jerusalem, Paulstayed with Philip, who lived in Caesarea along with his fourprophesying daughters (8:40; 21:8–9). It was in Caesarea thatPaul made his decision to go to Jerusalem, despite Agabus’sprophecy that the Jews would deliver him over to the Gentiles and theurging of Paul’s companions and the local people for him not togo (21:10–13). Following Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem, hewas sent to Caesarea to appear before the governor Felix and remainedimprisoned there for two years. When Felix was succeeded by Festus,Paul appealed to Caesar and was sent to Rome (25:11).
A seaport named for Cenchrias (a child of Poseidon) andlocated seven miles southeast of Corinth. Here Paul shaved his headas part of a vow he had made (Acts 18:18). Phoebe is called “adeacon of the church in Cenchreae” (Rom. 16:1).
One of the largest, wealthiest, and most prestigious cities in ancient Greece.
Location and important features. Corinth is located about fifty miles west of Athens on the narrow isthmus that connects mainland Greece with the Peloponnesus.
Corinth had two harbors. Lechaeum was about 1.5 miles west on the Corinthian Gulf and was enclosed within the six-mile-long city walls. Cenchreae was about 6.5 miles east on the Saronic Gulf. Paul sailed from Cenchreae to Syria to end his second missionary journey (Acts 18:18). Corinth’s location made it an international crossroads of commerce and travel. Because of the narrowness of the isthmus, it controlled the land routes between the Peloponnesus and mainland Greece.
With its two harbors, Corinth served as a gateway between Asia and Europe. Instead of sailing all the way around the Peloponnesian peninsula, it was faster and cheaper for ships to dock at one harbor and have cargo transferred across the narrow isthmus to the other harbor. The diolkos was the road upon which cargo and even small ships were carried across. In 602 BC Periander became the first to attempt to cut a canal across the isthmus, but he soon gave up after a negative oracle from Delphi. Later Roman emperors, including Julius Caesar, Caligula, and Nero, tried but failed. Strabo credited the location of Corinth as a key to its wealth, but he also recognized its temples, artisans, and the Isthmian games as major sources of wealth.
Corinth boasted the most impressive acropolis in Greece, its Acrocorinth towering eighteen hundred feet above the city. The Acrocorinth served as a fortress and hosted temples, the most famous of which was the temple of Aphrodite, which in the old city (destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC) had boasted a thousand temple slaves and prostitutes. Its presence contributed to Corinth’s reputation as an excessively immoral city. A Greek verb was coined, korinthiazomai (lit., “to Corinthianize”), which meant “to practice sexual immorality.” Like other prominent Greek cities, Corinth contained numerous temples to various gods and emperors. Asclepius was the god of healing, and his sanctuary made Corinth one of the premier medical centers. The temple of Apollo was one of the oldest temples in Greece, built in the sixth century BC in the Doric order.
Since in 44 BC Julius Caesar had rebuilt Corinth as a Roman colony, the city was laid out along a Roman grid system. By the time of Paul, Corinth’s architecture reflected the transition from Greek culture to a Roman colony. The predominance of Latin inscriptions over Greek inscriptions during the first century AD further demonstrates the Roman character of the city. As would be expected of a large Roman city in Greece, Corinth had a large forum in the city center surrounded by many commercial and civic buildings, including basilicas, water fountains, shops, public toilets, and a bouleutērion (council chamber). Its large theater was nearby.
Played every two years just ten miles from Corinth, the Isthmian games were one of four permanent Panhellenic games. The Isthmian games were played in AD 51, the same year Paul appeared before Gallio. The games brought considerable prestige and wealth to Corinth.
From ancient to modern times. The first occupation of Corinth began in the Stone Age, and by 1100 BC it was very prosperous and may be the “wealthy Corinth” mentioned in Homer’s Iliad. As one of the most prominent Greek city-states, it contributed to the development of Greece’s culture and wealth. It was a colonizing city-state and planted settlements across Greece and the Mediterranean. However, Corinth never fully recovered its former prominence after its defeat in the Peloponnesian War, which left Sparta victorious and Greece exhausted. Corinth later fell under the influence of the Macedonians for about 150 years until the arrival of the Romans in 196 BC. After years of opposition to the Romans, it was destroyed, and its inhabitants were sold into slavery in 146 BC (1 Macc. 8:9–11). Corinth’s fortunes changed when Julius Caesar established it as a Roman colony and Augustus later made it the capital of Achaia.
By the time of Paul’s arrival, Corinth was one of the most important commercial centers in the entire Roman Empire and the largest city in Greece, with a free population of about 300,000 and an additional 460,000 slaves. Corinth had a significant Jewish population, especially after AD 49, when the Jews were expelled from Rome (Acts 18:2). During Paul’s year and a half of ministry, he regularly argued in the synagogue (18:4). An inscription from the synagogue’s lintel has been found. In AD 51 many of the Jews brought Paul before Gallio, the proconsul of Achaia, on charges of “persuading the people to worship God in ways contrary to the law” (18:13). As Paul stood at the bēma (judgment seat), Gallio dismissed the charges and expelled the Jews from the court (18:12–17). The bēma, a platform where speakers stood and citizens appeared before officials, has been located and identified by archaeologists. Archaeologists have also found near the theater an inscription that reads, “Erastus, in return for his aedileship, laid this pavement at his own expense.” This is likely the same Erastus who was Corinth’s city treasurer and who became a Christian (Rom. 16:23; 2 Tim. 4:20). Corinth played a significant role in Paul’s ministry, as he visited it on multiple occasions (1 Cor. 12:14; 13:1), wrote 1–2 Corinthians to its church, and likely wrote Romans and 1–2 Thessalonians from there. Other early church leaders also ministered in Corinth, such as Apollos (Acts 19:1).
In spite of numerous devastating earthquakes and conquests by foreign powers, Corinth remained an important but not prominent city over the centuries. At the founding of modern Greece, it was considered a candidate for the capital.
An inhabitant of central Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Paulvisited the Galatians (Acts 18:23) and wrote to them (Gal. 1:2). TheGalatians were among several groups addressed in 1Pet. 1:1.
Ancient Greece was a federation of several loosely affiliatedcity-states located on the islands of the Aegean Sea, the land southof the Balkan Peninsula, west Asia Minor, and Crete.
TheMinoan Civilization (c. 2000–1400 BC)
Archaeologicalevidence shows that as early as the fourth millennium BC there werealready human inhabitants in the Aegean basin. Early migrants fromAsia Minor came to settle in Crete (c. 2600 BC) and started itscivilization at Knossos and Phaistos. It was called “Minoan,”after the mythical king Minos. The Minoan civilization reached itspeak around 1600 BC, when sophisticated palaces, highly developedmetal work, and fine pottery were produced. The popular religion wasthe worship of the Mother Goddess. Not only did the Minoans excel inarts and crafts, but also they were literate and developed asyllable-based (non-Greek) writing system known as LinearA.Minoan culture came to a sudden end around 1400 BC, probably due tointernal turmoil, natural disasters, and foreign invasion.
TheMycenaean Civilization (c. 1450–1200 BC)
TheMycenaeans may have arrived in the Early or Middle Bronze Age, andeventually they took over the Cretan palace settlement in 1450 BC andthus dominated the Aegean region for a time. The discovery of thecity of Mycenae gave rise to the name “Mycenaean.” Duringthis period, the Greek mainland enjoyed prosperity. While retainingtheir own culture, the Mycenaeans were greatly influenced by theMinoans, as indicated by their pottery, luxury items, and religioussymbolism. They were great engineers who built remarkable bridges andcitadels. One of the finest examples of their handiwork was the goldmasks that were buried together with their warriors. They employed aform of Greek language, known as LinearB, evidence of which hasbeen discovered at Knossos, Pylos, Tiryns, Mycenae, Thebes, andelsewhere. Between 1250 and 1150 BC, for unknown reasons, all theMycenaean palace citadels were destroyed.
TheAge of Expansion (c. 1200–800 BC)
Alreadyin the thirteenth century, the Greeks were scattered all over theeastern Mediterranean, as far as the coast of southern Palestine.Migration increased around 1200 BC, driven by population growth andthe accompanying demand for food and space, which led to colonizationin other regions. By the eighth century BC, great cities (e.g., Troy)along the northwest coast of Asia Minor had been taken by theAeolians. The Dorians dominated the south of the Balkan Peninsula andeventually founded Sparta, while the Ionians settled in theeast-central area of the Balkan Peninsula and founded Athens. Thisperiod was known as the Dark Age because of a lack of culturaladvancements, and the art of writing was largely lost after theMycenaean civilization was destroyed.
TheArchaic Period (c. 800–500 BC)
Greatchanges took place in this period. The rise of the city-state (polis)not only provided stability, where leagues were formed amongindividual city-states, but also brought forth the establishment ofinstitutions such as gymnasiums, symposiums, and temples. Tradingwith the Phoenicians allowed the Greeks to adopt and perfect theiralphabet. Military defense was enhanced with huge city walls, andarchitecturally sophisticated buildings of various kinds wereconstructed. The first Olympian games were held during this period,in 776 BC. Science and philosophy began to be taught; lyric poetryexpressing human emotions was created; and various gods (e.g., Zeus)were honored in their sanctuaries, which were overshadowed by mysteryreligions in the sixth century BC (e.g., Demeter, Dionysus, andOrpheus).
Greeksettlements were established in southern Italy, the northern Aegean,and along the northern coast of Africa. At this time, two importantcity-states representing two very different cultures came into thepicture. Sparta was made up of unwalled villages and ruled by kings,while Athens was a walled city governed first by the aristocrats,later by tyrants. Sparta was famous for its disciplined army, whileAthens boasted of its superior naval force. The social structure ofSparta produced a political system that upheld the interest of thestates, while Athens developed a legal system that laid thefoundation for democracy.
Perhapsmost important in this age were the Persian Wars. As the Greekscontinued to expand into the southern Balkan Peninsula and to thenorth of the Black Sea, and to establish colonies in theMediterranean, they encountered the superpower of that time. By 500BC, Darius I of Persia controlled the Greek world, except themainland of the Balkan Peninsula. Although on several occasions thePersians tried to invade mainland Greece, Athens (in alliance withSparta) was able to successfully defeat them, rendering thempowerless for a long period.
TheClassical Period (c. 500–338 BC)
Afterthe Persian Wars, Greek civilization advanced significantly into whatis now known as Classical Greece. Political leadership shifted fromSparta to Athens, which held naval hegemony, dominating the Aegeanislands and the coast of Asia Minor. According to the Athenianhistorian Thucydides, the growth of Athenian power, which posed athreat to neighboring city-states, caused the Peloponnesian War (c.431–404 BC). With the aid of the Persians, Sparta defeatedAthens, tearing down its Long Walls, which guarded the city and itsport of Piraeus, and making it an ally.
Thisperiod was a golden age for the Greeks, with the flowering ofdemocratic institutions, architecture, literature, and art. Massivebuildings were constructed, such as the Parthenon (447–438 BC),the Athena Nike (427–424 BC), the Erectheion (421–407 BC)on the Acropolis, and the Theseion (449 BC) on the Agora. Greekwritings of history, poetry, philosophy, comedy, and tragedyflourished. Thanks to the works of great historians such as Herodotusand Thucydides, events that transpired in ancient Greece have beenmade known to us. The four greatest Greek playwrights, Aeschylus,Aris-tophanes, Euripides, and Sophocles, were products of thisperiod. Some of the greatest plastic arts were produced during thistime, such as the statue of Athena Promachos (458 BC). Greatthinkers, such as Socrates and Plato, were born during this period.The end of Classical period Greece, however, was marked with endlesscivil wars and wars with the outside forces.
TheHellenistic Period (338–146 BC)
PhilipIIof Macedon defeated the Greeks at the battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCand took control of the entire Balkan Peninsula. His son Alexanderthe Great further expanded his territory all the way to India.Although his empire crumbled after his death (at the age ofthirty-three), Alexander contributed so much to the furtherance ofGreek culture and language that this age is known as the Hellenisticperiod, a time when Greek culture and language became widespread anddominant. Greece became a region of Macedon until 196 BC, when Romedeclared it independent.
TheRoman Period (146 BC–AD 100)
In148 BC Rome defeated Macedon, making it a Roman province. Two yearslater, Rome further took control of Greece, and in 46 BC the provinceof Achaia was created. These two provinces were not only strategicfor Rome; they also became the centers of the NT church. The Greeklanguage became the lingua franca and the language of the NT. Paul’ssecond and third missionary journeys brought him to Macedonia andAchaia (Acts 16:11–20:6). During the Roman period, Greececontinued to be a cultural and intellectual center, and Greekinfluence even went beyond that of early Christianity.
A transliteration of the Greek word synagōgē,meaning “gathering, assembly, meeting.” In English, theword “synagogue” refers either to a Jewish congregationor to the place where that congregation meets. Synagogues of thebiblical era functioned as both religious and civic centers for theJewish community.
Origins
Theorigin of synagogues is uncertain. The earliest archaeologicalevidence is from Egypt in the third century BC, consisting ofinscriptions and a papyrus letter. The oldest architectural find isfrom the island of Delos in the Aegean Sea, although whether this wasconstructed as a synagogue or redesigned into one is unknown, as iswhether it was Jewish or Samaritan. The oldest structures yet foundin Israel consist of two rooms at Qumran and the synagogue at Gamla,which date from the late first century BC. In Capernaum, the basaltsynagogue was built by a Gentile centurion for the community in thefirst century AD (Luke 7:1–5).
Bythat time, synagogues were well attested in Israel, elsewhere in theRoman Empire, and in Egypt (Matt. 4:23; Luke 4:44; Acts 9:2; 17:10,16–17; 18:8, 19). Synagogues were found wherever there werecommunities of Jews, in cities and rural areas alike. Especially inDiaspora settings or remote locations, they were the heart of Jewishlife. Several hypotheses have been suggested to account for theirapparently sudden appearance.
Somebelieve that synagogues were developed during the Babyloniancaptivity as the response of the exile community to the destructionof their temple and sacrificial system. Despite these enormouslosses, the Jews still had the Torah, and from that point forwardworship and prayer based on the reading and studying of theScriptures, which could be done locally, began to gain ascendancy.Critics of this idea, however, point out that while it makes sense,there is no direct evidence to support it.
Othersthink that the spread of Hellenism in the second century BCprecipitated a crisis of identity among Jews. For example,1Maccabees reports with distress that some Jews had abandonedthe covenant and teamed with the Hellenists, even going so far as tobuild a Greek-style gymnasium in Jerusalem (1:11–15). Thus, thethought is that synagogues were a form of resistance to theoverwhelming and perversely appealing cultural changes of the day.
Morerecently, it has been suggested that synagogues were the gradualsuccessors to functions that had previously taken place at citygates. First-century synagogues served a wide range of functions forthe community. Throughout Israel’s prior history, however,these same activities—assembly, legal, social, educational, andreligious—had taken place at the city gate (Deut. 12:15; 2Sam.15:2; 2Kings 23:8; Neh. 8:1–8). The Gamla synagogue sitsagainst the east city wall next to a probable gate, and its locationcould be evidence of the slow development of the synagogue as citygates changed from multipurpose facilities to portals of ingress andegress.
First-CenturySynagogues
First-centurysynagogues served as integrated centers supporting Jewish life.Regular communal reading and exposition of Scripture, includingteaching and discussion of the law and transmission of its complexassociated traditions (Luke 4:16; Acts 13:14–15), occurredthere. Although formal liturgical rites evolved after the destructionof the temple in AD 70, synagogues were places of prayer in the firstcentury (Matt. 6:5). Synagogues also served as courtrooms and placeswhere crimes were punished (Acts 22:19), as well as locations forcommon meals and festivals (see Acts 6:2).
Synagogueswere administered by local community leaders, including a presidentand a board (Acts 13:15). Synagogue leaders named in the NT includeJairus (Mark 5:22; Luke 8:41), Crispus (Acts 18:8), and Sosthenes(Acts 18:17). The role of the leader was to preside over services, torule as the judge in court cases, to represent the community, andoften to act as a patron. The board served in an advisory role andassisted with teaching. A scribe maintained community records andtaught.
Congregationsincluded Pharisees, who advocated strict adherence to the law,although they were chided by Jesus for their false piety (Luke11:42–44). Women participated in the synagogue along with themen, and in some cases they were financial donors (cf. Luke 8:3).God-fearing Gentiles were welcomed (Acts 17:17). In Jerusalem,synagogues included both Hebrews and Jews from the Diaspora (Acts6:1, 9).
Asynagogue could be a designated room in a house or a discretebuilding. Most of the better archaeological evidence is later thanthe first century and reveals more clearly religious intentionalityin design than may have been characteristic earlier. This evidenceincludes the door facing Jerusalem, artistic temple motifs, a nichefor the Torah scrolls, and perimeter bench seating around an opencentral hall.
TheSynagogue in the Bible
Sincesynagogues were institutions with a documented history no earlierthan the third century BC, they are not mentioned in the OT. TheGreek word from which the English one is derived does appearfrequently in the LXX, but always with a general reference to agathering, assembly, or meeting.
Rabbinichistory (but not Scripture) makes reference to the “GreatSynagogue,” meaning a group of men who transmitted traditionsfrom the prophets to the earliest named rabbinic teachers. It isloosely based on Neh. 8–10, which describes the prayers andactions of the Jewish leaders who had returned from exile.
Synagoguesfrequently were locations of the teaching and healing ministry ofJesus. He began preaching the kingdom of God, teaching, andperforming healing miracles in Galilean synagogues (Matt. 4:23; 9:35;12:9; 13:54; Mark 1:21–29, 39; 3:1; 6:2; Luke 4:15–38,44; 6:6–11; 13:10–17; John 6:59; 18:20). Later, theapostle Paul customarily initiated his mission work in the localsynagogue at each of his destinations (Acts 9:19–20; 13:5,14–15; 14:1; 17:1, 10, 17; 18:1–8; 19:8).
Thelast (and, from a twenty-first-century perspective, mostcontroversial) use of the word “synagogue” in Scriptureis the difficult phrase “synagogue of Satan” (Rev. 2:9;3:9), which must be read in its context. This was written in responseto the significant persecution in Asia Minor of the churches atSmyrna and Philadelphia by Jews who were in collusion with the Romanauthorities. They were falsely accusing Jewish and Gentile Christianbelievers, creating unspeakable suffering for them. This phrase,intended to encourage Christian perseverance, implies that thechurches in view represented true Israel, while their accusers werefalse Jews. Similar language was used by the covenant-keepingcommunity in Qumran when, in the DSS, it referred to apostate Jews asa “congregation of Belial” and an “assembly ofhypocrites” (1QHa 10:22; 15:34).
Binding promises made to God while awaiting God’s help(Gen. 28:20; Num. 21:2; 1Sam. 1:11). When God’s answercomes, worshipers fulfill their vows by performing what they havepromised (1Sam. 1:21; Acts 21:23–24).
Mosaicregulations address how and by whom vows are to be implemented (e.g.,Lev. 7:16; 22:17–25; 23:38; 27:2–11; Num. 30; Deut.12:5–28), including the “Nazirite vow” of radicalseparation to God (Num. 6:1–21; cf. Judg. 13:2–5; Acts18:18). Lament psalms connect vows with the outcry to God and portraytheir fulfillment in thank offerings that respond to God’sdeliverance (Pss. 50:14–15; 56:12–13; 66:13–15; cf.Job 22:27; Jon. 2:9). Since vows are intended to distinguish God’sfaithful worshipers (e.g., Ps. 116:14, 17–18), Scripturecondemns rash or unfulfilled vows (Num. 30:2; Deut. 23:21–23;Prov. 20:25; Eccles. 5:5–6; cf. Judg. 11:30–39). Somevows are made insincerely (2Sam. 15:7–8; Prov. 7:14) orto idols (Jer. 44:25).
Secondary Matches
The following suggestions occured because
Acts 18:18-28
is mentioned in the definition.
This book, commonly referred to simply as Acts, is the sequelto the Gospel of Luke and records the exciting history of the firstthree decades of the early church. The book begins with the ascensionof Jesus, followed by his sending of the Holy Spirit, and ends withthe gospel message being proclaimed by Paul as a prisoner in thecapital city of the Roman Empire. In the pages in between, the readeris introduced to the key people, places, and events of this strategicand crucial time of Christian history. The book of Acts providesinsightful and inspiring reading. It forms the backdrop forunderstanding much of the NT (especially Paul’s letters), andit provides important models for the contemporary church.
HistoricalBackground
Inorder to understand the book of Acts, one must become familiar withits historical background. This includes understanding the book’sauthorship, recipients, and setting. In terms of authorship, the booktechnically is anonymous; however, there are good reasons for holdingto church history’s traditional view that its author is Luke.This tradition dates back to the early second century and issupported by internal evidence. This evidence further reveals thatLuke was a physician and close companion of the apostle Paul (infact, Luke was actually with Paul for some of the events that herecords in Acts; see the “we” passages, found in16:10–17; 20:5–15; 21:8–18; 27:1–28:16). Lukewas well educated, well traveled, and familiar with both the Jewishand the Greco-Roman worlds. He was a Hellenistic God-fearerand a Christian. He was also familiar with the Jewish Scriptures,Greco-Roman rhetoric, and ancient histories, thus making him theperfect candidate to write an accurate history of early Christianity.
Thespecific recipient of Acts is Theophilus (1:1). Theophilus could becharacterized as a relatively new believer of high social status, aperson educated in Greco-Roman rhetoric and history, and one whopossessed the financial means to promote and publish Luke’swork (both the Gospel of Luke and Acts). It is probable that in someway Theophilus served as a bridge to a wider readership. It seemslikely that Theophilus was Luke’s ideal reader (i.e., aninfluential Greco-Roman of high social standing).
Thespecific setting of Acts is difficult to determine; however, it seemsclear that the book was written during a time of crisis for thechurch. This crisis involved persecution and slander of Christians byboth Jews and Gentiles. Both groups were trying to persuade publicopinion against Christianity, including the opinion of Greco-Romanauthorities. The persecution and slander were taking their toll onthe church, and many Christians were demoralized and struggling toremain faithful as witnesses of Jesus. Christianity needed someone towrite a response to this crisis. This response had to do threethings: (1) accurately relate the history of the church toinfluential Greco-Romans of high social status; (2) show thatChristianity was an ancient religion (ancient religions wereconsidered to be legitimate by Roman authorities) and an asset to theRoman Empire, not a threat; (3) legitimize Christianity overagainst Judaism. The author of this reponse had to be someone who wasrespected both inside and outside of the Christian faith community,who knew the church’s history well, and who was educated inGreco-Roman rhetoric. What better authorial candidate than Luke?Finally, the church also needed a person of high social status andfinancial means to help publish and promote the work; thus,Theophilus was chosen.
Purpose
Thebook of Acts was written for a variety of purposes. These includeapologetics, legitimization, discipleship, and witness to salvation.The apologetic purpose of Acts focuses on how Christianity could berecognized as an ancient, honorable, and officially protectedreligion in the Roman Empire. Although Judaism had the status ofreligio licita (legal religion) with Roman authorities for most ofthe first century, Christianity encountered serious problems in thisrespect. Acts itself reveals a substantial amount of such evidence inthis regard. For example, 16:20–21 shows that at Philippi, Pauland Silas were charged with disturbing the peace by advocatingunlawful customs. In Thessalonica, the missionaries were accused ofdefying Caesar by promoting another king named “Jesus”(17:7). At Corinth, the charge was that of persuading the peopletoward unlawful worship (18:13). Later in Acts, Paul was charged bythe Jewish priestly leaders with being part of an unacceptable sectthat was stirring up riots in Jewish communities (24:5–9). In28:22, when Paul addressed the Roman Jews, they responded by sayingthat “people everywhere are talking against this sect[Christianity].” Such accusations, accompanied by the fact thatChristianity’s founder had been crucified by Roman authorities,made it difficult for the Christians to gain credibility.Christianity’s precarious position with Rome was furtherexacerbated by a strong Jewish campaign to separate from Christiansand to label them as sectarian. This strategy certainly intended forChristianity to be viewed by Rome as religio illicita (illegal orforbidden religion). Thus, Luke writes Acts to defend Christianity byshowing that it is not a replacement of Judaism, but rather itslegitimate continuation. Therefore, it should be accepted by theRoman authorities as a legal religion just as Judaism was accepted.
Luke’sapologetic message also appears to be directed inwardly, to astruggling church. This inward focus leads to Luke’s next mainpurpose: legitimization of the Christian faith for its adherents. Aspart of his defense, Luke intends to equip the church in the midst ofan identity crisis due to the constant threats of illegitimacy. Thisexplains Luke’s strategy of retelling the story of the church’sorigins so that followers of Christ would understand their trueposition from God’s perspective. Thus, Luke verifies fourthings: (1) the Jewish Scriptures prophesied a coming messiah,and Jesus matched these prophecies; (2) the resurrection wasforetold in Scripture and verified by eyewitnesses; (3) it wasGod’s plan all along for Gentiles to be included in God’sredemptive work; (4) Jews who rejected Jesus were acting in thesame way their ancestors did; therefore, believers should not besurprised by their negative reaction to Jesus. Luke uses stories suchas the one in Acts 2:41–47 to verify that salvation wasgenuinely being accomplished in the church and that Christians wereexperiencing the fulfillment of God’s ancient promises toIsrael. Luke’s writing is intended to encourage hiscontemporary church members to remain faithful in their service andwitness for the Lord. He reminds them that they are the true(legitimate) “people of God” and that God’s Spiritwill help them prevail and will give them abundant life even in themidst of hardship and persecution.
Anotherkey purpose of the book of Acts is to foster discipleship. Theprologues of both Luke’s Gospel and Acts verify that Luke iswriting to provide instruction and teaching for Theophilus (see Luke1:1–4; Acts 1:1–2). Part of this instruction reveals thatthe ascension of Jesus was not the end of his relationship with theworld, but rather a new beginning. Jesus’ departure did notmean abandonment; in fact, it meant just the opposite. Jesus verifieshis continuing presence and work in the world after his departurejust as he had lived and worked before. In other words, the sameSpirit who directed the ministry of Jesus is now going to direct theministry of Jesus’ followers. The rest of the book of Actsprovides instruction (with many personal examples) on how Christ canfulfill the ministry of believers through the power and direction ofthe Holy Spirit. Luke’s discipleship teaching includes helpingbelievers learn how to experience and follow God’s Spirit(chap. 2), to boldly witness for Christ in the midst of persecution(chaps. 3–4, 8, 14, 16–17, 19–28), to sacrificiallyshare resources with other Christians in need (chaps. 2, 4, 11), toresolve disputes within the church (chaps. 6, 15), and to take thegospel message of salvation to all people (chaps. 2, 11, 13–28).
Thebook of Acts places great emphasis on the message of salvation andthe responsibility given to believers to share this salvific messagewith all people. This salvation-witness concept is clearly one ofLuke’s key purposes for the book of Acts. The Pentecost eventof Acts 2 initiates the theme of salvation for all people and thussets the agenda for the rest of the book. In this passage, variousJews from many nations hear the good news in their own tongue, whichsuggests that this news is for peoples of all tongues and nations yetfor Jews first. The rest of Acts continues this theme of theuniversal scope of salvation. Luke makes it clear that this salvationcrosses all geographical, ethnic, and social boundaries. In Acts,Luke is bridging the gap between Jesus’ earthly ministry and alater generation of Christ followers who are to take the gospel to amuch wider geographical area with even greater ethnic diversity. Themessage of salvation should be joined with Luke’s emphasis onwitness. The centrality of the theme of witness in Acts is verifiedby Jesus’ words right before the ascension: “And you willbe my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and tothe ends of the earth” (1:8). The book of Acts tells the storyof how the early church received and obeyed the command of Jesus tobear witness of him to the ends of the earth.
LiteraryFeatures
Thesekey purposes of Acts are expounded through some distinctive literaryfeatures found in the book. One such literary feature is that thebook of Acts was written in a literary genre called “apologetichistoriography.” This genre can be defined as the story of asubgroup of people told by a member of the group who explains thegroup’s traditions and history while using Greco-Roman literaryfeatures. A good example of this literary genre is Josephus’sJewish Antiquities. Josephus tells the story of the Jews toGreco-Roman readers in hopes that they will better understand Jewishhistory and traditions and will accept the Jews in the largerGreco-Roman world. This appears to be exactly what Luke is doing inthe book of Acts for Christians. However, Luke is not giving adefense of a particular ethnic group; rather, he is defending amulticultural people who transcend ethnic and geographicalboundaries. In fact, this is a key part of Luke’s message.Throughout Acts, Luke is trying to explain why his religion is onethat crosses ethnic boundaries and is a universal religion inclusiveof all ethnicities. As Luke tells the story of Christianity, he iscareful to utilize Hellenistic literary features in order to connectwith his primary audience. Evidence of these Hellenistic literaryfeatures in the book of Acts includes a narrative style illustratingthe history through the personal experiences of key characters (Actstells the history of the early church through characters such asPeter and Paul), the frequent use of speeches, personal observationof at least part of the narrative while maintaining anonymity ofauthorship (the “we” passages of Acts), and the frequentuse of summaries to guide the narrative (Acts contains three majorsummaries [2:42–47; 4:32–37; 5:12–16] and a numberof minor summaries [6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; 19:20; 28:31]).
Outlineand Survey
Actscan be outlined according to Jesus’ final words, recorded in1:8: “You will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes on you;and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea andSamaria, and to the ends of the earth.”
I.Witnesses in Jerusalem (1:1–8:3)II. Witnesses in Judeaand Samaria (8:4–12:25)III. Witnesses to the Ends of theEarth (13:1–28:31)
I.Witnesses in Jerusalem (Acts 1:1–8:3).Immediately following his ascension, Jesus tells his followers toreturn to Jerusalem and wait for the coming of the Holy Spirit. Theypromptly obey, and after ten days of waiting, the disciples aredramatically filled with the Holy Spirit and begin to share thegospel with those around them. This event occurs at the JewishPentecost festival, which was attended by Jews and Jewish proselytesfrom throughout the Roman Empire. After the Spirit comes atPentecost, Peter boldly preaches to the crowds, and over threethousand people respond with saving faith (2:41).
Lukenext provides an exciting summary of the Spirit-led life within theearly church. This life is characterized by the early believers’participation together in the sharing of worship activities, materialpossessions, and spiritual blessings (2:42–47). This summary isfollowed by several dramatic healing miracles accomplished throughPeter and the subsequent arrest of Christian leaders by Jewishreligious authorities. Instead of squelching the Christian movement,however, these arrests only enhance the spiritual revival and itsaccompanying miracles. This revival is characterized by extremegenerosity and unity within the early church (4:32–37).
Therevival joy, however, is marred by the deceitful actions of Ananiasand Sapphira, who lie to the church and to the Holy Spirit and arejudged by God with immediate death (5:1–11). This story provesthat God will go to extreme lengths to protect the unity of hischurch. Following more persecution and miracles, the disciples chooseseven men to oversee distribution of food to Hellenistic widows whohave been neglected in daily food distributions (6:1–7). One ofthese leaders, Stephen, is arrested and brought before the Sanhedrin.Stephen testifies boldly before the Jewish leaders and is promptlyexecuted by stoning (chap. 7). This execution is endorsed by Saul, azealous Pharisee who begins to lead fierce persecution against thechurch in Jerusalem (8:1–3).
II.Witnesses in Judea and Samaria (Acts 8:4–12:25).Saul’s persecution forces many of the early church believers toleave Jerusalem. These believers scatter throughout the surroundingareas of Judea and Samaria. As they scatter, however, they continueto preach the gospel (8:4). Philip preaches in Samaria and performsmany miraculous signs, producing a spiritual revival in the region.Hearing about this, the apostles send Peter and John to Samaria tominister to the Samaritans (8:18–25), thus confirming thecross-cultural nature of the gospel (Samaritans traditionally werehated by the Jews). Next Luke tells of Philip’s evangelizing ofan Ethiopian eunuch (8:26–40).
Followingthe Ethiopian’s belief in Jesus, the narrative tells of Saul’sdramatic conversion while traveling to Damascus to persecuteChristians there (9:1–19). Saul’s dramatic turnaround ismet with suspicion by the other disciples, but eventually he isaccepted by the believers with the help of Barnabas (9:27–30).Next Peter travels to the Judean countryside and heals the paralyticAeneas and raises Dorcas from the dead (9:32–42). Thesemiracles produce an exciting spiritual revival in the region.Following this, God gives Peter a vision to go to the coastal city ofCaesarea in order to minister to Cornelius, a Roman army officer.Cornelius is a God-fearer, and through Peter’s witness heresponds to the gospel message and receives the Holy Spirit (chap.10). Peter explains his actions with Cornelius to his concernedJewish companions and verifies that God has indeed included theGentiles in his plan of salvation (11:1–18).
Thisverification is followed by the report of what is happening in thechurch at Antioch, where Jews begin to share the gospel with largergroups of Gentiles (11:19–21). This cross-cultural evangelismproduces a spiritual revival in Antioch, causing the Jerusalem churchto send Barnabas to the large Syrian city to investigate (11:22–30).Barnabas confirms that God is indeed at work in Antioch and invitesSaul to come and help him disciple the new Gentile believers(11:25–26). Next Luke reports more persecution breaking outagainst Christians in Jerusalem, resulting in the arrest of James andPeter by King Herod. James is executed, but Peter miraculouslyescapes from prison with the help of an angel (12:1–19), andthe church continues to increase, spreading throughout the RomanEmpire.
III.Witnesses to the ends of the earth (Acts 13:1–28:31).Starting with chapter 13, the narrative shifts its focus from theministry of Peter to that of Paul (formerly Saul). The church atAntioch begins to take center stage over the church at Jerusalem.This church commissions Paul and Barnabas and sends them off on theirfirst missionary journey, accompanied by Barnabas’scousin John Mark. The missionaries first sail to Cyprus, where theypreach in synagogues and encounter a Jewish sorcerer, Bar-Jesus. Nextthey sail to Pamphylia, thus crossing into Asia Minor, and preach thegospel in Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe (this area wasknown as part of the region of Galatia). In these cities, Godprovides numerous miracles, and the missionaries experience a greatresponse to the gospel as well as much persecution because of thegospel. On one occasion, Paul is actually stoned and left for dead(14:19–20).
Unfazed,Paul and his team boldly continue their mission. Eventually, theyretrace their steps, strengthen the churches that they have started,and sail back to Syrian Antioch, where they give an exciting reportto the church (14:26–28). Following this report, Luke tells ofan important meeting of church leaders in Jerusalem. The subject ofthe meeting involves whether or not the new Gentile Christians shouldbe required to follow the Jewish laws and customs. After debating theissue, the leaders side with Paul, determining that the Gentilesshould not be burdened with Jewish laws and traditions, but simplymust live moral lives and not eat food that has been sacrificed toidols (chap. 15).
Followingthis meeting, Paul and Barnabas decide to make a second missionaryjourney. Unfortunately, the two missionaries get into a dispute overwhether to take John Mark with them again. The argument is such thatthe missionaries decide to separate, and Paul chooses a new partner,Silas. They travel by land back to Galatia. Barnabas takes John Markand sails to Cyprus. Paul and Silas return to Derbe and Lystra andthen make their way to Macedonia and Greece. They spend significanttime in Philippi, Thessalonica, and Corinth before returning toCaesarea and Antioch (chaps. 16–18). Following his return, Paulmakes a third missionary journey, revisiting churches in Galatia andPhrygia and staying in Ephesus for three years before visitingMacedonia and Greece for a second time.
Paulconcludes his third missionary journey with a trip to Jerusalem,where he is falsely accused of bringing a Gentile into the temple.This accusation creates a riot, and Paul is rescued by Romansoldiers, who arrest him and transfer him to a prison in Caesarea,where he spends two years awaiting trial under the rule of Felix andFestus (23:34–25:22). Paul eventually exercises his right as aRoman citizen to have his case heard by the emperor. He is sent toRome by boat and is shipwrecked on the island of Malta. Eventually hemakes his way to the capital city, where he is placed under housearrest. While in Rome, Paul maintains a rented house and is free toreceive visitors and write letters. In fact, it is thought that Paulpenned his “prison letters” during this time of housearrest (Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Philemon). The narrativeof Acts ends with Paul ministering boldly in Rome while awaiting histrial.
Actsand the Contemporary Church
Thebook of Acts provides a model for today’s church on numeroustopics. These include understanding the role of the Holy Spirit,practicing community life within the church, dealing with hardshipand persecution, overcoming social injustices, and carrying outmissions.
Actsreveals that the key issue for Christians is learning to experienceand follow God’s Holy Spirit, who enables believers to be boldin their witness for Christ, generous in their physical and spiritualsupport of each other, and effective in their ministries. Actsconsistently reveals that one’s joy, power, and purpose comefrom the Holy Spirit. According to Acts, learning to follow anddepend upon God’s Holy Spirit is the key to having a healthychurch.
Actsalso shows that the Holy Spirit produces a unique community lifecharacterized by worship, generosity, blessing, and unity. Luke callsthis Spirit-led common life koinōnia, which is explained andillustrated in the first five chapters of Acts (see esp. 2:42–47).It should be the desire and goal of every church to re-create thiskoinōnia community first experienced by the primitive church inActs.
Inaddition to its koinōnia, the book of Acts serves as a model forthe church in overcoming persecution and hardship. The narrative ofActs consistently reveals the sovereign power of God in overcomingopposition. The early church found great joy and growth in the midstof hardship and persecution, and today’s church can do thesame.
Anotherimportant example for the church provided by Acts is in the area ofsocial justice. Luke’s primitive church consistently removedethnic prejudices, eliminated social hierarchy and status within thechurch, and elevated the role of women. Acts provides inspiration andguidance for today’s church in facing these same social issues.
Inaddition to overcoming social injustices, the church in Acts providesan excellent example of mission ministry. These believersconsistently revealed God’s heart for the nations and made it apriority to share the gospel with all people everywhere. Acts’emphasis on the universal nature of the gospel, the responsibility ofindividual Christians to witness for Christ, and the importance ofplanting new churches and discipling new believers sets a pattern fortoday’s church in the area of missions.
Theseexamples should serve to inspire and guide the contemporary church asit seeks to follow and experience the Holy Spirit, who is sopowerfully revealed in the book of Acts.
Asia Minor, the land area of modern-day Turkey, was initiallysettled by the Hatti people between 2500 and 2000 BC. Toward the endof that period, the Indo-European Hittites, drawn to the mildclimate, began a slow settlement alongside the indigenous Hattis,mixing peaceably with them. By 1750 BC, the Hittites had become thedominant people group.
Inthe twelfth century BC the Hittites fell to the Sea Peoples. Theydeveloped coastal cities along the Aegean, which by the eighthcentury were conquered by the Greeks. The Lydian king Croesus came topower in 560 BC in Sardis and subdued the Greeks, only to fall in 546BC to Cyrus of Persia. In 334–333 BC Alexander the Greatdefeated the Persians in two key battles and won Asia Minor. AfterAlexander’s death, one of his generals, Seleucus, took over.Then, in 190 BC the Romans defeated the Seleucids and assumedcontrol. This inaugurated an extended period of peace, during whichtime Jewish communities of the Diaspora settled throughout theregion.
Themissionary journeys of the apostle Paul (Saul of Tarsus) took himinto and around much of Asia Minor, and directly or indirectly he wasresponsible for the establishment of most of the first-centurychurches there. The following cities of Asia Minor are mentioned inthe NT.
EasternMediterranean
Tarsus.The birthplace of the apostle Paul (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), Tarsusis located on the Mediterranean coast, nine miles northeast ofmodern-day Mersin. Tarsus became the capital of the Roman province ofCilicia in 67 BC. Cleopatra and Mark Antony met and built their fleetin this grand city. When his life was threatened after hisconversion, Paul was sent to Tarsus from Jerusalem (9:30).
Antioch.Antioch (Antakya) is located just inland from the Mediterraneancoast, on the east bank of the Orontes River. Jewish and Gentilebelievers who fled Jerusalem after the death of Stephen planted achurch here, where followers of Jesus were first called “Christians.”Barnabas brought Saul from Tarsus to Antioch, where they laboredtogether for a year, teaching the church, prior to setting off ontheir first missionary journey (Acts 11:19–30). Paul laterreturned, along with Silas, bearing the requirements for Gentilebelievers from the Jerusalem council (15:22–35).
SouthernPorts
Seleucia.Known today as Samandağ, Seleucia was Antioch’s port, theplace from which Saul, Barnabas, and John Mark embarked on theirfirst missionary journey in AD 47 (Acts 13:4).
Pergain Pamphylia.Perga is just east of Antalya on the southern Mediterranean coast.Archimedes’ student Apollonius the mathematician lived here inthe late third century BC. On their first missionary journey, Pauland Barnabas disembarked in Perga for destinations in southwesternAsia Minor, while John Mark left them to return to Jerusalem (Acts13:13–14). On their return trip of the same journey, Paul andBarnabas stopped in Perga again, this time preaching before headingto Attalia (14:25).
Galatia
Thefollowing cities became part of the politically defined Romanprovince of Galatia in 25 BC. They are to be distinguished fromethnic Galatia, which is a region further north, around modern-dayAnkara.
PisidianAntioch.Modern Yalvaç, or Pisidian Antioch, is northeast of Isparta inthe lake region. On their first missionary journey, Paul and Barnabaspreached in the synagogue here and generated enormous interest in thegospel (Acts 13:14–43). The following Sabbath, nearly theentire city came out to listen to them. Jealous Jewish leadersincited a persecution, causing Paul and Barnabas to reorient theirministry to Gentiles and then leave the region for Iconium(13:26–51). They returned on their way back to Antioch tostrengthen the disciples and appoint elders (14:21–23).
Iconium.Iconium, today called Konya, is about sixty-five miles southeast ofPisidian Antioch. It is one of the most ancient settlements of theregion, dating to the third millennium BC. Paul and Barnabas preachedin the synagogue here on their first missionary journey, initiallywinning Jewish and Gentile converts but angering other Jews. Paul andBarnabas eventually feared for their safety and escaped to Lystra andDerbe (Acts 14:1–6). However, they came back on the return tripto Antioch (14:21–23). Iconium is also noteworthy as the homeof the ascetic St. Thecla from the apocryphal second-centuryChristian text Acts of Paul and Thecla.
Lystra.Frequently mentioned with Derbe (Acts 14:6; 16:1), Lystra (modernHatunsaray) is nineteen miles south of Iconium. Paul and Barnabasfled here from Iconium and preached. Paul healed a lame man, and as aresult he and Barnabas were presumed by the enthusiastic crowd to beZeus and Hermes. At the instigation of Paul’s Jewish opponents,the crowd’s sentiments turned, and Paul was nearly stoned todeath. He and Barnabas left for Derbe the following day (14:6–20),but they came back on their return trip (14:21–23). Paulreturned on his second missionary journey, where he met his protégé,Timothy (16:1–2).
Derbe.About fifty miles southeast of Lystra and slightly north ofpresent-day Karaman is Derbe. Paul and Barnabas fled here afterPaul’s stoning in Lystra on their first missionary journey,preached the gospel, made many disciples, and appointed elders (Acts14:21–23). Among the disciples likely was Gaius, who lateraccompanied Paul during his third missionary journey (Acts 20:4).
WesternAegean Ports
Troas.Troas was a major northwest seaport located about twelve milessouthwest of Troy. On his second missionary journey, Paul, travelingwith Silas and Timothy, was prevented from entering Bithynia by theSpirit of Christ and went instead to Troas. Here he had a visionbeckoning him to Macedonia, which he promptly obeyed (Acts 16:6–11).Because this is the first of the so-called “we” passagesin Acts, Luke may have joined the group here (16:10). Paul alsostopped at Troas on the return to Jerusalem from his third missionaryjourney. There he raised Eutychus after the latter’s traumaticfall (20:4–12). Troas is mentioned twice more, suggesting thatPaul spent time here in addition to the above visits (2 Cor.2:12–13; 2 Tim. 4:13).
Adramyttium.A few miles south of Troas was the port of Adramyttium. It was theorigin of the ship that transported Paul from Caesarea to Myra aroundAD 60 en route to Rome (Acts 27:2).
Assos.Assos is an acropolis sitting 774 feet above sea level, up from thevillage of Behramkale. It overlooks the Bay of Edremit and has asplendid view of Lesbos. Doric columns from the seventh-century BCtemple of Athena are prominent at the site. According to Acts20:13–14, on his return from his third missionary journey, Paulwent overland from Troas to Assos, and there he joined his travelingcompanions on their ship. From here on the way to Miletus, they madeseveral nearby island stops off the coast of Asia Minor: Mitylene onLesbos, Chios, and Samos (20:14–16).
Miletus.Located about twenty miles south of Ephesus, at the point where theMeander River met the Gulf of Latmus (now silted over), was theimportant southwestern seaport of Miletus. The city was significantin the NT era for its four harbors. A center for commerce,scholarship, geometry, and science, it was also the prototype forprinciples of city planning later applied throughout the RomanEmpire. On his third missionary journey, Paul’s farewell to theEphesian elders took place here (Acts 20:15–38). Later he leftthe ill Trophimus in Miletus (2 Tim. 4:20).
SouthwesternPorts
Patara.Sitting on the Mediterranean coast at the mouth of the Xanthus River,about forty miles west of present-day Demre, Patara was a flourishingharbor and commercial center in antiquity. Paul changed ships here ashe returned to Jerusalem from his third missionary journey, afterisland stops in Kos and Rhodes (Acts 21:1–2).
Myra.Myra is a coastal ruin due south of present-day Demre. In the NT era,the seaport featured a Roman theater, Roman baths, and two rock-cutnecropolises. Here, Paul changed ships around AD 60 on his way toRome while in the custody of a centurion (Acts 27:5). Myra is perhapsbest known as the home of the fourth-century bishop St. Nicholas,who was from nearby Patara.
Cnidus.At the tip of the long, narrow Datca peninsula on the extremesouthwestern corner of Asia Minor lies Cnidus. Founded around 360 BC,the acropolis rises 1,000 feet above sea level. The port included twoharbors and four theaters but was most famous for its fourth-centuryBC statue of Aphrodite, carved by the Athenian sculptor Praxiteles.Around AD 60 the ship carrying Paul to Rome stopped here because ofslow winds and changed course (Acts 27:7).
SevenChurches of Revelation; Lycus Valley
Theseven churches of Rev. 1–3 lay along a north-south ellipticalroute in western Asia Minor. Laodicea, the seventh, forms a tightgeographic triangle with Hierapolis and Colossae in the Lycus Valley.
Ephesus.Known today as Selçuk, ancient Ephesus is located on theAegean coast of Asia Minor at the mouth of the Cayster River. It wasfounded in the eleventh century BC by the Ionians and later ruledsuccessively by the Athenians, Spartans, Persians, and Greeks. Romangovernance began in 190 BC. Later, Ephesus became the capital of theprovince of Asia, as well as its most important commercial center.During the NT era, the Artemision (see Artemis) was an importantpilgrimage site.
Paulstopped in Ephesus briefly on his second missionary journey, leavingPriscilla and Aquila. They later encountered and mentored Apollosthere (Acts 18:19–26). On his third journey, Paul remained inEphesus for three years, teaching, performing miracles, and healingthe sick (19:1–22) until the riot incited by Demetrius thesilversmith (20:1). He wrote 1 Corinthians in Ephesus (1 Cor.16:8) and later wrote to the Ephesians from his Roman prison cell(Eph. 3:1) as well as to Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tim. 1:3).
InRev. 2:1–7 the Ephesian church is commended for itsperseverance but chastised for having lost its first love.
Smyrna.Smyrna (modern İzmir) is located about thirty-five miles northalong the coast from Ephesus. In 195 BC it became the first city inAsia Minor to erect a temple for the imperial cult, and by the nextcentury it was known as “the ornament of Asia.” In itsletter, which mentions no negatives, the church is encouraged to befaithful in its suffering (Rev. 2:8–11).
Pergamum.About seventy miles north of Smyrna is Pergamum (modern Bergama). Thedazzling acropolis sits one thousand feet high and about sixteenmiles inland from the Aegean. The Attalids, who ruled 263–133BC, allied Pergamum with Rome and built it into a major religious andintellectual center, constructing the great altar to Zeus Soter, thetemple to Athena Nicephorus, and the large complex dedicated toAsclepius Soter. They also established a ruler cult and built alibrary containing two hundred thousand volumes, which at its peakwas second only to the library at Alexandria.
Theletter to the church (Rev. 2:12–17) references Satan’sthrone, which many believe to be a reference to the altar to Zeus.The church is commended for its faithfulness and yet is admonishedfor tolerating those advocating pagan practices within the community.
Thyatira.Thyatira (now called Akhisar) is about thirty-five miles southeast ofPergamum. It was mainly noted as having a significant concentrationof trade guilds, especially those connected with textiles. Lydia,Paul’s disciple and host in Philippi, was a dealer in purplecloth from Thyatira (Acts 16:14). The church is commended for itsgood deeds but criticized for tolerating the false teacher Jezebel(Rev. 2:18–29).
Sardis.Forty-five miles east of Smyrna, on the banks of the Pactolus, isSardis, where Croesus, the sixth-century BC Lydian king, was said tohave panned for gold. He also built an impressive Ionic temple toArtemis here. Archaeological evidence points to the presence of asignificant Jewish community in Sardis, about which the NT is silent.
Theletter to Sardis is a stern warning to wake up, highlighting thechurch’s incomplete deeds and impurity (Rev. 3:1–6).
Philadelphia.Philadelphia (modern Alaşehir) is twenty-six miles southwest ofSardis on the Cogamis River. The city was noted for its wineproduction, and it was nicknamed “Little Athens” duringthe Roman era. Its letter is thoroughly positive; the church iscommended for its deeds and faithfulness (Rev. 3:7–13).
Laodicea.Laodicea is located about a hundred miles east of Ephesus, in avalley where the Lycus River joins the Meander; Hierapolis is just tothe north, and Colossae just to the east. Laodicea was founded in thethird century BC by the Seleucid king Antiochus II, who named itafter his wife. Cicero served as proconsul there in 51 BC.
Laodiceawas a prosperous city, a center for banking, eye salve (“Phrygianpowder”), and wool production. Its water was supplied viaaqueducts from Hierapolis’s hot springs, but it arrivedlukewarm and heavy with mineral impurities—no match for eitherits hot source or Colossae’s cold springs. The Laodicean letteremploys all of this background in its harsh message to the church,which it describes as tepid, poor, blind, and naked (Rev. 3:14–22).
Hierapolis.Eight miles to the north of Laodicea, Hierapolis sits atop dramaticwhite cliffs created by its hot springs (Col. 4:13). The city washome to the reputed entrance to the underworld, the Plutonium, andhad an enormous necropolis.
Colossae.Colossae, ten miles east of Laodicea, was a center for dyed red wool.Although wealthy in the late fourth century BC, it was later eclipsedby Laodicea.
Thechurches in Laodicea, Hierapolis, and Colossae (the oldest of thethree cities) were begun by Epaphras and shared letters, includingPaul’s letter to the Colossians (Col. 4:13–16). The slaveOnesimus carried it, along with the Letter to Philemon, to Colossae,where Philemon hosted the house church (Col. 4:9; Philem. 10–12).
Cities, towns, and villages were essential parts of a commoncivilization pattern shared by the ancient Near East and the Bible.Towns and cities were designed to provide the basic needs ofsecurity, shelter, and sustenance to enable their populations toengage in a variety of social, economic, religious, and politicalactivities.
Theurban picture of the biblical world is complicated by severalfactors. The first is the large span of time covered in the Bible.The urban chronology of Scripture begins at the moment of the firstattempt at city building (Gen. 4:17) and ends with the revelation ofthe new Jerusalem, the city of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:2).
Moreover,the Bible is not concerned with providing a detailed commentary onthe expansion of city and urban life. It is true that several of thegreat cities of the ancient Near East and the Greco-Roman world arementioned in the pages of the Bible; however, many of the religious,social, economic, and political factors involved in the developmentof urban life are not identified or discussed. The archaeologicalrecord often suggests a more complex picture.
Inaddition, a wide variety of terms are used broadly andinterchangeably in the Scriptures to describe settlement patterns andsocio-urban structures. For example, the specific differences betweena city, a town, and a village are not clearly identified in thebiblical text. Normally, a city had a fortified wall or other type ofdefensive enclosure, while a town or village did not.
Furthermore,city status was not necessarily determined by size. Ancient citieswere much smaller. During the reign of Solomon, Jerusalem coveredabout thirty-three acres. But by the time of Jesus it measured nearlytwo hundred acres. Jericho, the oldest city in Palestine, was nolarger than ten acres. The archaeological record suggests thatJericho was occupied by at least 7000 BC. Hazor, one of the largestcities in the upper Galilee, covered 175 acres. The dimensions ofPalestinian cities were minuscule compared to the great pagan citiessuch as Nineveh, Babylon, and Rome.
ArchaeologicalEvidence
Archaeologicalevidence suggests that some of the chief concerns of city buildingremained constant over time. Cities were planted along main highwaysor trade routes. Often a city sat at important crossroads orintersections. An adequate water supply was necessary, as were rawmaterials for shelter and industry. The site had to be easy to defendand surrounded by adjacent agricultural land sufficient to sustainthe population. All cities in the ancient Near East built walls andcity gates. Most featured an acropolis or citadel and a workingsystem of city streets. Many cities contained a sanctuary or highplace where individuals could worship.
Atleast four major phases of urbanization in Palestine occurred duringthe biblical period.
EarlyBronze Age II (3000–2700 BC).Although Jericho and other cities had their origin in theChalcolithic period, the Early Bronze Age produced a significantexpansion of urban life. Cities in this period included Megiddo, Ai,Gezer, Arad, Jericho, and others. Larger sites protected byfortifications with gates are characteristic of this period. Temples,fortified citadels, and residential houses were found arranged alongstreets and thoroughfares inside the city. The water supply became acommunity concern, and steps were taken to conserve runoff water intolarge reservoirs or cisterns. Such urban planning presupposes asocial hierarchy in the differentiation of labor and need. Farmers,craftsmen, and traders, as well as priests and rulers, worked andlived side by side in the city.
MiddleBronze Age IIB (1750–1650 BC).In the second wave of urbanization, the Canaanites refortified andrebuilt older settlements such as Dan, Hazor, Megiddo, and Shechem.Other sites, such as Bethel and Beth Shemesh, were established as newsettlements. Distinctive walls, fortifications, gates, and culticarchitecture characterized this period. Mud-brick was a commonconstruction material. Larger city-states controlled agriculturalresources and ruled numerous villages and settlements within theirimmediate vicinity. These city-states often joined together inpolitical alliances. Cuneiform documents from Mari and Hazor providea glimpse into the social, cultural, and political life in the citiesof this period. This wave of urbanization began to decline by theLate Bronze Age.
IronAge II (1000–586 BC).Early Iron Age settlements developed alongside the declining LateBronze cities as rough camps, simple enclosures, and villages in thehighlands of Palestine. Later, during the monarchial period, some ofthe villages and cities expanded into full urban centers, followingroyal hierarchical and administrative blueprints. Cities containedadministrative buildings, enhanced fortifications and gates, newwater systems, and planned street systems offering systematicdrainage. Housing generally followed a typical pattern. Stone becamethe construction material of choice. Both the united monarchy and thedivided kingdoms of Israel and Judah established royal cities,administrative centers, fortified border cities, and fortresses.Urban life gravitated toward the upkeep of a central religious andeconomic royal administration.
Romanperiod.As a champion of all things Hellenic, Alexander the Great introducedthe Greek city, or polis, into the oriental culture of the Levant.This new type of city, with its theaters, gymnasia, statues, andcolonnades, served as a beacon of Greek civilization. Such citiesattracted Greek settlers, traders, and local natives (Acts 18:1–3,18–28; Rom. 16:3–5; 1 Cor. 16:19). The Greek agora(marketplace) replaced the Palestinian city gate as the center oftrade and commerce. Sepphoris and the towns of the Decapolis wereexamples of this type of city in Palestine. The Romans imitated theHellenistic city plan but emphasized one main north-souththoroughfare (cardo) and east-west streets. Building activity inPalestine flourished under Herod the Great (37–4 BC). Herebuilt, expanded, and renamed many Palestinian sites, such asCaesarea, Sebaste, and the Tower of Antonia in Jerusalem. Herodradically changed the landscape of Jerusalem, rebuilding there on amassive scale not only the palace but also the temple.
OldTestament
Thecommon Hebrew word for “city,” ’ir, occurs 1,093times in the OT. English versions normally translate the word as“city,” but sometimes “town” is used. Thesame term is found outside the Bible in one of the Lachish lettersand as a cognate in several Semitic languages. The etymology of ’iris not clear, but it may be related to the Sumerian word for “city,”uru. The word may have originally designated a fortified or protectedplace.
Inthe OT, ’ir can be applied to a wide range of settlements,including villages, towns, and capital cities regardless of size orlocation. For example, Deut. 3:5 speaks of cities fortified with highwalls, gates, and bars in the same sentence with “rural towns”or “country settlements” [NIV: “unwalledvillages”]. On the other hand, a distinction is made between a“walled city” and a “village” in Lev. 25:29,31. In Num. 13:19 Moses specifically charges the spies with the taskof determining whether the Canaanite cities are fortified or morelike camps. Cities given to the Levites in Num. 35:1–8 alsoincluded the surrounding pasturelands connected with them. A numberof times the OT speaks of the fields associated with a city orvillage (Lev. 25:34; Josh. 21:12; Neh. 11:25, 30).
Citieswere also given special designations or names. Cities of refuge areso designated to provide protection for individuals who havecommitted accidental manslaughter (Num. 35:11; Josh. 20:2; 1 Chron.6:57). Jericho was called “the City of Palms” (Deut.34:3; 2 Chron. 28:15). Jerusalem was known as “the City ofDavid” (1 Kings 3:1; 2 Chron. 5:2), “Zion”(Isa. 33:20; Zech. 8:3; Heb. 12:22), and “the holy city”(Isa. 52:1; Rev. 21:1).
Twoother Hebrew terms are often translated “city.” The nounqeret occurs only five times in biblical poetry (Job 29:7; Prov. 8:3;9:3, 14; 11:11). The noun qiryah is found twenty-nine times. It issometimes translated “town” in the NIV (Deut. 2:36; Job39:7; Isa. 25:2; Jer. 49:25; Hos. 7:12). The etymology of either wordis uncertain, but both may be derived from qir (“wall”).In many cases qiryah functions as a synonym of ’ir.
InDeut. 2:36 and 3:4 qiryah is used to designate the towns taken by theIsraelites in Transjordan. Heshbon is identified in Num. 21:28 as the“town” (qiryah; NIV: “city”) of Sihon. Theword qiryah is also found in the names of several towns, such asKiriath Jearim (Josh. 15:9) and Kiriath Sepher (Josh. 15:15). Hebronwas originally Kiriath Arba (Gen. 23:2; 35:27), and Balaam rode toKiriath Huzoth (Num. 22:39). Shaveh Kiriathaim (Gen. 14:5) andKiriathaim (Num. 32:37) contain a form of qiryah.
Smallercommunities were called “villages” or “settlements”(Gen. 25:16; Lev. 25:31; Deut. 2:23). Some of these were connected toa larger city or provincial center. The book of Joshua commonlyspeaks of a city or town and “its villages” (Josh. 13–19;cf. 1 Chron. 6:26). In addition, the Hebrew phrase “daughtersof” (i.e., settlements) is frequently used to identify smallervillages under the jurisdiction of a larger city and dependent uponit (Num. 21:25, 32; 32:42; Josh. 15:45, 47; Neh. 11:25–31).
NewTestament
TheGreek word polis occurs 163 times in the NT and is translated as“town” or “city.” Several sites are calledpolis: Nazareth (Matt. 2:23), Capernaum (Luke 4:31), Arimathea (Luke23:51), Bethlehem (John 7:42), and others. Jerusalem is called “theholy city” (Matt. 4:5; cf. Rev. 3:12), “the city of theGreat King” (Matt. 5:35), and “the city of the livingGod” (Heb. 12:22). During his ministry, Jesus preached in thetowns of Galilee (Matt. 11:1) and Samaria (Matt. 10:5). In the bookof Acts, Paul served as an evangelist to the Greek and Roman citiesin the Mediterranean world.
Asia Minor, the land area of modern-day Turkey, was initiallysettled by the Hatti people between 2500 and 2000 BC. Toward the endof that period, the Indo-European Hittites, drawn to the mildclimate, began a slow settlement alongside the indigenous Hattis,mixing peaceably with them. By 1750 BC, the Hittites had become thedominant people group.
Inthe twelfth century BC the Hittites fell to the Sea Peoples. Theydeveloped coastal cities along the Aegean, which by the eighthcentury were conquered by the Greeks. The Lydian king Croesus came topower in 560 BC in Sardis and subdued the Greeks, only to fall in 546BC to Cyrus of Persia. In 334–333 BC Alexander the Greatdefeated the Persians in two key battles and won Asia Minor. AfterAlexander’s death, one of his generals, Seleucus, took over.Then, in 190 BC the Romans defeated the Seleucids and assumedcontrol. This inaugurated an extended period of peace, during whichtime Jewish communities of the Diaspora settled throughout theregion.
Themissionary journeys of the apostle Paul (Saul of Tarsus) took himinto and around much of Asia Minor, and directly or indirectly he wasresponsible for the establishment of most of the first-centurychurches there. The following cities of Asia Minor are mentioned inthe NT.
EasternMediterranean
Tarsus.The birthplace of the apostle Paul (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), Tarsusis located on the Mediterranean coast, nine miles northeast ofmodern-day Mersin. Tarsus became the capital of the Roman province ofCilicia in 67 BC. Cleopatra and Mark Antony met and built their fleetin this grand city. When his life was threatened after hisconversion, Paul was sent to Tarsus from Jerusalem (9:30).
Antioch.Antioch (Antakya) is located just inland from the Mediterraneancoast, on the east bank of the Orontes River. Jewish and Gentilebelievers who fled Jerusalem after the death of Stephen planted achurch here, where followers of Jesus were first called “Christians.”Barnabas brought Saul from Tarsus to Antioch, where they laboredtogether for a year, teaching the church, prior to setting off ontheir first missionary journey (Acts 11:19–30). Paul laterreturned, along with Silas, bearing the requirements for Gentilebelievers from the Jerusalem council (15:22–35).
SouthernPorts
Seleucia.Known today as Samandağ, Seleucia was Antioch’s port, theplace from which Saul, Barnabas, and John Mark embarked on theirfirst missionary journey in AD 47 (Acts 13:4).
Pergain Pamphylia.Perga is just east of Antalya on the southern Mediterranean coast.Archimedes’ student Apollonius the mathematician lived here inthe late third century BC. On their first missionary journey, Pauland Barnabas disembarked in Perga for destinations in southwesternAsia Minor, while John Mark left them to return to Jerusalem (Acts13:13–14). On their return trip of the same journey, Paul andBarnabas stopped in Perga again, this time preaching before headingto Attalia (14:25).
Galatia
Thefollowing cities became part of the politically defined Romanprovince of Galatia in 25 BC. They are to be distinguished fromethnic Galatia, which is a region further north, around modern-dayAnkara.
PisidianAntioch.Modern Yalvaç, or Pisidian Antioch, is northeast of Isparta inthe lake region. On their first missionary journey, Paul and Barnabaspreached in the synagogue here and generated enormous interest in thegospel (Acts 13:14–43). The following Sabbath, nearly theentire city came out to listen to them. Jealous Jewish leadersincited a persecution, causing Paul and Barnabas to reorient theirministry to Gentiles and then leave the region for Iconium(13:26–51). They returned on their way back to Antioch tostrengthen the disciples and appoint elders (14:21–23).
Iconium.Iconium, today called Konya, is about sixty-five miles southeast ofPisidian Antioch. It is one of the most ancient settlements of theregion, dating to the third millennium BC. Paul and Barnabas preachedin the synagogue here on their first missionary journey, initiallywinning Jewish and Gentile converts but angering other Jews. Paul andBarnabas eventually feared for their safety and escaped to Lystra andDerbe (Acts 14:1–6). However, they came back on the return tripto Antioch (14:21–23). Iconium is also noteworthy as the homeof the ascetic St. Thecla from the apocryphal second-centuryChristian text Acts of Paul and Thecla.
Lystra.Frequently mentioned with Derbe (Acts 14:6; 16:1), Lystra (modernHatunsaray) is nineteen miles south of Iconium. Paul and Barnabasfled here from Iconium and preached. Paul healed a lame man, and as aresult he and Barnabas were presumed by the enthusiastic crowd to beZeus and Hermes. At the instigation of Paul’s Jewish opponents,the crowd’s sentiments turned, and Paul was nearly stoned todeath. He and Barnabas left for Derbe the following day (14:6–20),but they came back on their return trip (14:21–23). Paulreturned on his second missionary journey, where he met his protégé,Timothy (16:1–2).
Derbe.About fifty miles southeast of Lystra and slightly north ofpresent-day Karaman is Derbe. Paul and Barnabas fled here afterPaul’s stoning in Lystra on their first missionary journey,preached the gospel, made many disciples, and appointed elders (Acts14:21–23). Among the disciples likely was Gaius, who lateraccompanied Paul during his third missionary journey (Acts 20:4).
WesternAegean Ports
Troas.Troas was a major northwest seaport located about twelve milessouthwest of Troy. On his second missionary journey, Paul, travelingwith Silas and Timothy, was prevented from entering Bithynia by theSpirit of Christ and went instead to Troas. Here he had a visionbeckoning him to Macedonia, which he promptly obeyed (Acts 16:6–11).Because this is the first of the so-called “we” passagesin Acts, Luke may have joined the group here (16:10). Paul alsostopped at Troas on the return to Jerusalem from his third missionaryjourney. There he raised Eutychus after the latter’s traumaticfall (20:4–12). Troas is mentioned twice more, suggesting thatPaul spent time here in addition to the above visits (2 Cor.2:12–13; 2 Tim. 4:13).
Adramyttium.A few miles south of Troas was the port of Adramyttium. It was theorigin of the ship that transported Paul from Caesarea to Myra aroundAD 60 en route to Rome (Acts 27:2).
Assos.Assos is an acropolis sitting 774 feet above sea level, up from thevillage of Behramkale. It overlooks the Bay of Edremit and has asplendid view of Lesbos. Doric columns from the seventh-century BCtemple of Athena are prominent at the site. According to Acts20:13–14, on his return from his third missionary journey, Paulwent overland from Troas to Assos, and there he joined his travelingcompanions on their ship. From here on the way to Miletus, they madeseveral nearby island stops off the coast of Asia Minor: Mitylene onLesbos, Chios, and Samos (20:14–16).
Miletus.Located about twenty miles south of Ephesus, at the point where theMeander River met the Gulf of Latmus (now silted over), was theimportant southwestern seaport of Miletus. The city was significantin the NT era for its four harbors. A center for commerce,scholarship, geometry, and science, it was also the prototype forprinciples of city planning later applied throughout the RomanEmpire. On his third missionary journey, Paul’s farewell to theEphesian elders took place here (Acts 20:15–38). Later he leftthe ill Trophimus in Miletus (2 Tim. 4:20).
SouthwesternPorts
Patara.Sitting on the Mediterranean coast at the mouth of the Xanthus River,about forty miles west of present-day Demre, Patara was a flourishingharbor and commercial center in antiquity. Paul changed ships here ashe returned to Jerusalem from his third missionary journey, afterisland stops in Kos and Rhodes (Acts 21:1–2).
Myra.Myra is a coastal ruin due south of present-day Demre. In the NT era,the seaport featured a Roman theater, Roman baths, and two rock-cutnecropolises. Here, Paul changed ships around AD 60 on his way toRome while in the custody of a centurion (Acts 27:5). Myra is perhapsbest known as the home of the fourth-century bishop St. Nicholas,who was from nearby Patara.
Cnidus.At the tip of the long, narrow Datca peninsula on the extremesouthwestern corner of Asia Minor lies Cnidus. Founded around 360 BC,the acropolis rises 1,000 feet above sea level. The port included twoharbors and four theaters but was most famous for its fourth-centuryBC statue of Aphrodite, carved by the Athenian sculptor Praxiteles.Around AD 60 the ship carrying Paul to Rome stopped here because ofslow winds and changed course (Acts 27:7).
SevenChurches of Revelation; Lycus Valley
Theseven churches of Rev. 1–3 lay along a north-south ellipticalroute in western Asia Minor. Laodicea, the seventh, forms a tightgeographic triangle with Hierapolis and Colossae in the Lycus Valley.
Ephesus.Known today as Selçuk, ancient Ephesus is located on theAegean coast of Asia Minor at the mouth of the Cayster River. It wasfounded in the eleventh century BC by the Ionians and later ruledsuccessively by the Athenians, Spartans, Persians, and Greeks. Romangovernance began in 190 BC. Later, Ephesus became the capital of theprovince of Asia, as well as its most important commercial center.During the NT era, the Artemision (see Artemis) was an importantpilgrimage site.
Paulstopped in Ephesus briefly on his second missionary journey, leavingPriscilla and Aquila. They later encountered and mentored Apollosthere (Acts 18:19–26). On his third journey, Paul remained inEphesus for three years, teaching, performing miracles, and healingthe sick (19:1–22) until the riot incited by Demetrius thesilversmith (20:1). He wrote 1 Corinthians in Ephesus (1 Cor.16:8) and later wrote to the Ephesians from his Roman prison cell(Eph. 3:1) as well as to Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tim. 1:3).
InRev. 2:1–7 the Ephesian church is commended for itsperseverance but chastised for having lost its first love.
Smyrna.Smyrna (modern İzmir) is located about thirty-five miles northalong the coast from Ephesus. In 195 BC it became the first city inAsia Minor to erect a temple for the imperial cult, and by the nextcentury it was known as “the ornament of Asia.” In itsletter, which mentions no negatives, the church is encouraged to befaithful in its suffering (Rev. 2:8–11).
Pergamum.About seventy miles north of Smyrna is Pergamum (modern Bergama). Thedazzling acropolis sits one thousand feet high and about sixteenmiles inland from the Aegean. The Attalids, who ruled 263–133BC, allied Pergamum with Rome and built it into a major religious andintellectual center, constructing the great altar to Zeus Soter, thetemple to Athena Nicephorus, and the large complex dedicated toAsclepius Soter. They also established a ruler cult and built alibrary containing two hundred thousand volumes, which at its peakwas second only to the library at Alexandria.
Theletter to the church (Rev. 2:12–17) references Satan’sthrone, which many believe to be a reference to the altar to Zeus.The church is commended for its faithfulness and yet is admonishedfor tolerating those advocating pagan practices within the community.
Thyatira.Thyatira (now called Akhisar) is about thirty-five miles southeast ofPergamum. It was mainly noted as having a significant concentrationof trade guilds, especially those connected with textiles. Lydia,Paul’s disciple and host in Philippi, was a dealer in purplecloth from Thyatira (Acts 16:14). The church is commended for itsgood deeds but criticized for tolerating the false teacher Jezebel(Rev. 2:18–29).
Sardis.Forty-five miles east of Smyrna, on the banks of the Pactolus, isSardis, where Croesus, the sixth-century BC Lydian king, was said tohave panned for gold. He also built an impressive Ionic temple toArtemis here. Archaeological evidence points to the presence of asignificant Jewish community in Sardis, about which the NT is silent.
Theletter to Sardis is a stern warning to wake up, highlighting thechurch’s incomplete deeds and impurity (Rev. 3:1–6).
Philadelphia.Philadelphia (modern Alaşehir) is twenty-six miles southwest ofSardis on the Cogamis River. The city was noted for its wineproduction, and it was nicknamed “Little Athens” duringthe Roman era. Its letter is thoroughly positive; the church iscommended for its deeds and faithfulness (Rev. 3:7–13).
Laodicea.Laodicea is located about a hundred miles east of Ephesus, in avalley where the Lycus River joins the Meander; Hierapolis is just tothe north, and Colossae just to the east. Laodicea was founded in thethird century BC by the Seleucid king Antiochus II, who named itafter his wife. Cicero served as proconsul there in 51 BC.
Laodiceawas a prosperous city, a center for banking, eye salve (“Phrygianpowder”), and wool production. Its water was supplied viaaqueducts from Hierapolis’s hot springs, but it arrivedlukewarm and heavy with mineral impurities—no match for eitherits hot source or Colossae’s cold springs. The Laodicean letteremploys all of this background in its harsh message to the church,which it describes as tepid, poor, blind, and naked (Rev. 3:14–22).
Hierapolis.Eight miles to the north of Laodicea, Hierapolis sits atop dramaticwhite cliffs created by its hot springs (Col. 4:13). The city washome to the reputed entrance to the underworld, the Plutonium, andhad an enormous necropolis.
Colossae.Colossae, ten miles east of Laodicea, was a center for dyed red wool.Although wealthy in the late fourth century BC, it was later eclipsedby Laodicea.
Thechurches in Laodicea, Hierapolis, and Colossae (the oldest of thethree cities) were begun by Epaphras and shared letters, includingPaul’s letter to the Colossians (Col. 4:13–16). The slaveOnesimus carried it, along with the Letter to Philemon, to Colossae,where Philemon hosted the house church (Col. 4:9; Philem. 10–12).
Ancient Ephesus was located on the western coast of AsiaMinor (modern-day Turkey). This cosmopolitan and multiethnic seaportcity of some quarter of a million people was one of the largest andmost important cities in the Roman Empire. Ephesus experiencedtremendous growth during the reign of Caesar Augustus, who elevatedthe city to the capital of the province of Asia. The city became acenter of international trade (because of its location), of finance(the main treasury for the tax collectors in Asia), and ofcommunications (the base for a group of Roman military couriers).
Ephesusitself was an impressive place, featuring modern roads, a businessmarket, a civic center, expensive homes, public baths, a stadium, agymnasium, temples to various gods and emperors, a concert hall, animpressive library, and much more. Two particular landmarks wouldhave stood out to visitors. First was a theater that seated almosttwenty-five thousand people. This is the place where the silversmithDemetrius led the crowd to riot in opposition to Paul (see Acts19:23–41). Second was the temple of Artemis, a structure aboutfour times as large as the Parthenon in Athens. The building measured130 meters by 70 meters and contained 127 columns that were 2 metersin diameter and 20 meters high. The temple served as the mostimportant financial institution in Asia. Many ancient lists includedthe temple of Artemis as one of the seven wonders of the ancientworld.
Religiously,Artemis was the most important deity to the people of Ephesus. Atleast two major festivals were held in honor of Artemis, in which theEphesians celebrated with competitions and religious processions. Thecity also featured other religions and cults, including worship ofthe Roman emperor. There were several temples dedicated to emperorsat Ephesus, including one to Domitian (likely the emperor whenRevelation was written), built around AD 89–90. The city wasalso a center for the practice of magic and occult arts. In Acts19:18–19 we read about new Christians turning away from thepractice and burning their magic books (worth “fifty thousanddrachmas”—i.e., the wages for fifty thousand days ofwork).
Theapostle Paul’s ministry in Asia was strongly connected toEphesus (see Acts 18–20). After serving the church in Corinthfor nearly two years (18:11), Paul went to Ephesus accompanied byPriscilla and Aquila, the couple who later instructed Apollos(18:26). Paul reasoned with the Jews in the synagogue for a shorttime before leaving for Antioch (18:19–22). On his thirdmissionary tour, Paul came to Ephesus (18:24; 19:1), where he sharedthe gospel of Jesus Christ with twelve disciples of John the Baptist(19:1–7). He taught in the synagogue for three months, butlater he moved to the lecture hall of Tyrannus, where he ministeredfor two years with tremendous results (Acts 19:8–20; cf. 1Cor.16:8). When conversions to Christ hurt sales of Artemis idols, thelocal silversmiths started a riot in the theater against theChristians (Acts 19:23–41; cf. 1Cor. 15:32). Paul thenleft Ephesus for Macedonia (Acts 20:1) and spent the winter inCorinth. On his return trip to Jerusalem, he stopped in nearbyMiletus, where he met with the Ephesian elders (20:16–38). Paulmade it to Jerusalem but was arrested and eventually transferred toRome. Many think that Paul wrote the Letter to the Ephesians fromRome (AD 60–62). Paul’s coworkers Timothy (1Tim.1:3), Onesiphorus (2Tim. 1:18), and Tychicus (2Tim. 4:12)are associated with his ministry in Ephesus.
Earlychurch tradition says that the apostle John lived in Ephesus towardthe end of his life. Also, the church in Ephesus received the firstof the letters to the seven churches of Asia (Rev. 1:11; 2:1–7).The church in Ephesus was commended for its perseverance anddoctrinal purity but faulted for abandoning its first love. Those whoovercame were promised access to the tree of life in paradise, animage contrasting with the sacred tree shrine in the temple ofArtemis.
The practice of buying, selling, and trading goods is wellattested in both Testaments. Listed among the items of trade in theBible are textiles (Ezek. 27:24), metals (1 Kings 9:28; Ezek.27:13; Rev. 18:12), spices (Jer. 6:20; Rev. 18:13), corn (1 Kings5:11; Ezek. 27:17), animals (1 Kings 10:29), and wine (2 Chron.2:15; Rev. 18:13).
OldTestament
Palestinerests in a strategic position between Egypt and Mesopotamia. Thus,major trade routes that predate the biblical writings are foundthroughout Palestine. That certain forms of commerce seem to justappear on the scene in the biblical narrative attests to thesignificance of commerce during the OT era. One such incidentinvolves a caravan of Ishmaelites traveling from Gilead to Egypt(Gen. 37:25). Although the narrative is primarily interested inshowing how Joseph ended up in Egypt, the reality that Ishmaelites(later called “Midianites” [Gen. 37:28]) travel at suchgreat lengths for goods attests to the far-reaching impact ofcommerce at that time.
Travelingby land.By biblical times, three major north-south highways crossedPalestine. On the coast was the international coastal highway,sometimes referred to as the Way of the Sea (Lat. Via Maris) (seeIsa. 9:1), although this is somewhat of a misnomer. This route beganin Egypt and continued through to Gaza, Aphek, Megiddo, Hazor, Dan,and Damascus. Mentioned three times in the Bible (Num. 20:17; 21:22;Deut. 2:27), the King’s Highway began in the Gulf of Aqaba atElath (northernmost point of the Red Sea) and ran north to Damascus.A major trade route in ancient times, the road eventually was linedwith fortresses and rebuilt by the Roman emperor Trajan during thesecond century AD. The third major road was interregional but notinternational. This central interregional route ran from Shechem inthe north to Beersheba in the south, making stops in Shiloh, Bethel,Ramah, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Hebron along the way.
Theindication that Solomon had “seven hundred wives of royal birthand three hundred concubines” (1 Kings 11:3) evidencesvarious lines of commerce, both regionally and internationally.Marriage, particularly for kings, was arranged often for strategicpurposes. One way to formalize an agreement of peace, safe passage,or commerce agreements was to offer a daughter in marriage. Solomon’swives from Egypt, Moab, Ammon, Edom, Sidon, and Hittite areas(1 Kings 11:1) probably served both political and economicfunctions.
Travelingby sea.Although travel and trade by water (rivers and sea) cannot be ruledout, particularly in Egypt, the most significant commercial endeavorsin the OT concern the main trade routes through Palestine. However,numerous examples of maritime commerce are evidenced in the OT. Amongthe most interesting examples of maritime commerce are the ships ofSolomon, which would return intermittently with “gold, silverand ivory, and apes and baboons” (1 Kings 10:22). Despitethe admonition given to the Israelite kings (Deut. 17:15–20),Solomon acquired horses and chariots from Egypt (1 Kings10:28–29) by way of Kue (cf. Cilicia in the southeast ofpresent-day Turkey). Thus, trade appeared to be international by bothland and sea (cf. Gen. 37:25–28; 1 Kings 10:15; Isa. 23:8;Ezek. 27).
Revelation.The centralized geographical orientation of Palestine ensured that ithad a unique role in the commercial trade of the ancient NearEast. Perhaps this is why God gave specific revelation to Israel thatapplied to commercial affairs. The exhortation to “use honestscales and honest weights” when conducting business would havedemonstrated the integrity of both Israel and Israel’s God(Lev. 19:35–36).
NewTestament
Theconquests of Alexander the Great catalyzed trade relationshipsbetween West and East (c. fourth century BC). Yet it would not beuntil the Roman consolidation of power in the western Mediterranean(Third Punic War, 149–146 BC) that commerce was greatlyimproved. The two-century period of peace, referred to as the PaxRomana (cf. Philo, Embassy 47; Plutarch, Mor. 317B), was one of theabiding legacies of the emperor Augustus (r. 27 BC–AD 14).Among the positive outcomes of Augustus’s rule were economicprosperity, improved communications, and stabilized government. Thegrowing network of Roman roads and strict regulation on the seasimproved the quality and conditions of travel between locations, thusimproving communications and commercial opportunity throughout theempire (cf. Pliny the Elder, Nat. 14.1.2).
Contributingto the development of commerce was the creation of a fully monetizedeconomy throughout the Roman Empire. Although bartering continued tofunction, coinage had come into heavy usage after and on account ofthe policies of Alexander the Great. Strabo even goes so far as tomention that the lack of the use of coinage was a characteristic ofbarbarism (Geogr. 7.5.5).
Merchantsinclude shippers, entrepreneurs, and their agents, who traveled aboutmaking contracts and supervising the shipment of goods. Although thetypical source of income for an aristocrat was agriculture, theenticement of potential profits of commerce led some to engage in themerchant trade or appoint their slaves to do so. Jesus seems toallude to the latter practice in Matthew’s Gospel when he tellsa parable of a master who goes on a long journey and expects hisservants to handle his affairs (Matt. 25:14–27). A slave mightbe entrusted with a message or a business transaction abroad. Thus,it would not have been uncommon to see a slave traveling and handlinghis master’s business. Perhaps this gives insight intoOnesimus, the slave whom Paul encounters, who belongs to Philemon(see Philem. 10–18).
Dueto slow travel times, most foods were not transported very far. Butthe high demand for grain grew the commerce industry from a generallylocalized phenomenon to an international operation. Aside from thewell-documented import/export of grain, items such as wine, driedfruits, spices, and other luxury items were shipped longer distances.Commerce was undertaken by both land and sea.
Travelingby land.Nothing like the massive infrastructure of modern nations existed inantiquity. Yet, by the time of the NT, Roman roads made shipping andland travel more efficient and possible than ever before. The extentof these road systems expanded from modern-day Scotland to theEuphrates and provided strategic value for the empire but alsoprofoundly revolutionized commerce and travel. Many of these roadsare still in use. Even with the improved conditions of the roadsystems, however, land commerce was slow and costly. Most commercialtraffic, therefore, was localized. Maritime commercial enterprise,however, allowed for quicker, more economical shipping.
Therewere two principal land trade routes in the Roman world. First, theAppian Way (Lat. Via Appia) ran south from Rome to Capua, crossingItaly and extending to Brundisium on the Adriatic coast. Stretches ofthis road were traversed by Paul and his companions as they went toRome (Acts 28:15–16). The second, the Egnatian Way (Lat. ViaEgnatia), begins in Dyrrachium and spans across Macedonia andeventually to Byzantium (Istanbul). A stretch of Paul’s secondand third missionary journeys would have used this path as hetraveled to Thessalonica (cf. Acts 17:1).
Tothe east, in Asia Minor (present-day Turkey), the well-traveledeast-west roadway was known as the Common Way. Anyone familiar withPaul’s missionary journeys will recognize some of the stopsalong the Common Way: Ephesus, Laodicea, Pisidian Antioch, Iconium,and Tarsus (to name a few).
Travelingby sea.The presence of maritime commerce is well documented in the NT.Virtually no travel industry existed in its own right; rather, travelfollowed the established trade routes. If one wished to travel bysea, one sought a cargo vessel heading to the appropriate locale.Thus, when the NT records sea travel, it is in the context ofcommerce ships (cf. Acts 27:38). Most ships stayed close to land andventured between ports (cf. 20:13–15; 21:1–8; 27:2),although if the prevailing western winds could be utilized, a largeship would take to the open sea.
Althoughcommerce was not an industry of the elite (cf. Cicero, Off.1.150–151; Homer, Od. 8.14ff.), the importance of maritimetrade cannot be overlooked. This industry provided a way toredistribute essential resources and goods throughout the Romanworld, potentially eliminating temporary shortages. Both Athens andRome depended highly upon imports of grain from Egypt to feed theirurban population and maintain armies. In fact, much of the largecommercial travel on the Mediterranean was undertaken to supply grainto Rome. The book of Acts mentions two such grain ships fromAlexandria (27:6, 38; 28:11).
Large-scalesea commerce could transport vast amounts of goods between locations.Acts mentions 276 persons traveling on a grain ship destined for Rome(27:37). Likewise, Josephus records his ill-fated journey to Rome ona ship carrying 600 passengers (Life 15). This number of passengersprovides some insight into the size of these sea vessels and theamount of cargo that could be carried. It is thought that anAlexandrian commerce ship could be up to two hundred feet long.
Therewere two principal maritime trade routes in the Roman world. First,the sea route from Puteoli (southeast of Rome) to Alexandria was usedby merchant ships that took advantage of the prevailing winds on theMediterranean as they traveled to Egypt for grain. This passage, ofnearly one thousand nautical miles, could be made in less than twoweeks. Conversely, the journey back could take up to three months andfollowed the Palestinian coast north, passing several significantports: Lydda, Joppa, Caesarea, Ptolemais, Tyre, Sidon, and Antioch.
AlthoughRoman peace ushered in an era of safer travel by land and by sea,maritime transit remained quite dangerous. Paul is recorded to haveundergone four shipwrecks (see Acts 27:39–44; 2 Cor.11:25–26). Josephus records his own journey to Rome “througha great number of hazards, by sea” (Life 14). Weather patternsand sea conditions could change quickly, and it was generallyacknowledged that certain times of the year were better for traveling(Cod. theod. 13.9.3.3; Tacitus, Hist. 4.81; Acts 27:9–12; cf.2 Tim. 4:13). Nevertheless, the Roman imperium offered generousincentives to merchants who risked the season and brought supplies ofgrain to Rome from Egypt (Suetonius, Claud. 18–19; Cassius Dio,Hist. 60.11). Such a ship provided the context for the apostle Paul’sjourney to Rome, which ended in shipwreck and the loss of the grainproduct, but remarkably without any loss of life (see Acts 27:13–44).
Tradeassociations.Trade associations of various kinds existed in the ancient world.Such a group consisted of merchants or artisans who shared a commontrade. These groups typically exerted no political, social, oreconomic influence. Rather, they existed to protect the merchants andartisans and their economic interests. Such was the case when theartisans of Ephesus incited a riot over the actions of Paul and hiscompanions when they preached against the idolatry of Artemis worship(Acts 19:26). The statement that “all Asia and the world”worship Artemis (19:27) certainly is hyperbolic; yet thepervasiveness of the Artemis cult is recorded in other sources(Pausanias, Descr. 4.31.8; Strabo, Geogr. 4.1.5) and suggests thatthe artisans who fashioned these silver shrines made good money inthe local economy.
Likewise,the bronze trade from Corinth is well documented in antiquity (e.g.,Vitruvius, De arch. 8.41; Pliny the Elder, Nat. 34.6). Bronzewas used to produce various goods: bowls, jewelry, andsound-enhancing vessels for the theater at Corinth. The latter may bewhat Paul alludes to when he writes of a “resounding gong”(1 Cor. 13:1). The recognition of the beauty and value ofCorinthian bronze resulted in it being sought after by other markets.Pliny the Elder reports, “There has been a wonderful maniaamong many people for possessing this metal” (Nat. 34.6).Located on the Greek Peloponnesus, Corinth was in a strategicposition to distribute its goods throughout the Roman Empire. It wasto this port city that Paul came and spent significant time plantinga church (Acts 18:1, 18).
The Diaspora (or the Dispersion) generally refers to Jewsliving outside the land of Israel. Especially by the first centuryAD, Jews lived throughout the Mediterranean world and Mesopotamia.Large populations of Jews lived in Egypt and in Babylon/Persia. TwoJewish communities in Egypt established temples: at Elephantinesometime from the fifth through the fourth centuries BC, and atLeontopolis in the second century BC.
Accordingto 2 Kings 17:1–41, the first major relocation of Israelitesoccurred forcibly around 722 BC, when Samaria fell to SargonII,king of Assyria. As punishment for breaking their subject obligationsto Assyria, Sargon deported many Israelites elsewhere in the AssyrianEmpire, a usual Assyrian practice. The Bible also records thedeportations of Judeans by Babylon around the end of the seventh andbeginning of the sixth century BC (2Kings 24–25; Jer. 21;25; 27; 29; 39; 52). It explains these forced dispersions, or exiles,as punishments for breaking covenant obligations to Yahweh (Lev.26:31–39; Deut. 28:64–67). The Bible also notes some Jewsrelocating voluntarily (Jer. 40–43). Voluntary relocationslikely constitute the primary source for Jews in the Diaspora.
Accordingto Acts, Christianity’s spread was inseparably tied to theDiaspora. The initial large “conversion” that Actsrecords, at Pentecost, involves Jews from the Diaspora who havetraveled to Jerusalem for the festival (Acts 2:5–13).Throughout the rest of Acts, the apostles and missionaries findrefuge and audiences among many Diaspora Jewish communities. Evenafter Paul declares that he will turn to the Gentiles because theJews have rejected the message (Acts 13:44–52), Diasporacommunities continue to provide travel destinations and audiences forhim (e.g., Acts 17:1–4, 10–12, 17; 18:1–11, 19;28:17–30). Some NT authors label their recipients as those inthe Diaspora (or Dispersion), perhaps a Christianizing deployment ofthe term (James 1:1; 1Pet. 1:1–2).
A prescribed selection of foods. The Mosaic law requires adistinctive diet for Israel that excludes, among other foods, camel,hare, rock badger, and blood (see Lev. 11; Deut. 14:1–21) andrequires a day-long fast on the Day of Atonement. The basis is notentirely clear. Some argue for a nutritional advantage to the diet;others view the commandments as an opportunity to express obedienceand self-discipline. Although God allows the consumption of the fleshof certain animals, but not their blood (Gen. 9:2–4; Lev.17:10–16), the ideal diet appears to be fruits, grains, andvegetables (Gen. 1:11–12; 2:5; Exod. 16; Dan. 1:11–16;Matt. 6:11). Israelites could also make a Nazirite vow, by which theyabstained from wine and anything derived from grapes (Num. 6:1–21;Judg. 13:5–7). John the Baptist adopted a restrictive diet oflocusts and wild honey, probably as an expression of mournfulfasting—a diet that Jesus departs from, leading to accusationsof him being a drunkard and glutton (Matt. 3:4; 9:14–17;11:16–19). Otherwise, the Bible eschews stringent asceticism.With rampant poverty and drought, few people then struggled with themodern preoccupation with overeating and becoming overweight (but seeJudg. 3:17). Within the bounds of moderation, humaneness towardanimals killed for food, and sensitivity to the conscience of others,Christians are free from restrictions concerning food (Mark 7:19;Rom. 14:14; Phil. 3:19). Like Paul, they may choose to adopt aNazirite vow (Acts 18:18) or observe other restrictions for the sakeof their conscience (e.g., vegetarianism), but they should do sowithout judging another’s diet.
A missive or epistle (2Chron. 35:4; Ezra 4:7). Usually, ancient Near Eastern letters were written on perishable materials, as opposed to, for example, inscriptions in stone. Since there are few places where such material could survive (deserts or anaerobic bogs), one would expect few surviving letters; yet they number in the tens of thousands. The ancients were letter writers. Significantly, reading old letters has remained a significant aspect of the Christian faith. Today, many Christians regularly read someone else’s mail—the letters of the NT—and face the expected interpretation challenges.
Form
Old Testament letters. Although more than a dozen letters are embedded in the OT (e.g., 2Sam. 11:15; 1Kings 21:9–10; 2Chron. 21:12–15), no OT book is in letter form. Embedded OT letters are truncated or summaries and tell us little of the typical ancient format. From the Lachish letters we infer that Hebrew letters generally opened with “To Addressee, greetings (or blessing),” a technical word of transition (“and now”), and no formal closing. By the Second Temple period, Aramaic letters were evolving into the structure seen in Greco-Roman style.
New Testament letters. Unlike the OT, the NT has twenty-one books in letter form: the thirteen traditional letters of Paul, the anonymous letter of Hebrews, James, 1–2 Peter, 1–3 John, and Jude. Two letters are embedded in Acts (15:23–29; 23:26–30). It is unlikely that the “letters” in Rev. 2–3 were ever dispatched letters. The NT also mentions other letters (Acts 18:27; 1Cor. 5:9; 7:1; 16:3; 2Cor. 2:3–4; Col. 4:16; 2Thess. 2:2; 3:17).
Extant NT letters share the basic format of Greco-Roman letters, beginning with “Sender to Recipient, greetings [chairein].” A prayer (much less commonly a thanksgiving) transitioned into the letter body. The body of the letter opened with various phrases in a set format (stereotyped formula), such as disclosure: “I want you to know, brother(s), that...” (P.Oxy. 1493; Gal. 1:11); astonishment: “I am astonished how...” (P.Mich. 8.479; Gal. 1:6); petition, joy, and so forth.
The letter closed with final admonitions, greetings, good wishes, and sometimes a date. In addition to a set structure, the content was often far more stereotypical than letters today. Even letters to a family member had generic greetings, set phraseology, and standardized wishes for good health.
Yet, looking beyond the basic letter outline and the use of everyday language and formulas, it becomes clear that NT letters were not part and parcel with typical papyrus letters. Rather than the typical honor markers of rank or city, NT letter writers identified themselves by association with Jesus, sometimes describing themselves as slaves in his household (Rom. 1:1; James 1:1). The typical letter greeting (chairein) was Christianized into “grace” (charis), with the addition of “peace” (eirēnē)—the equivalent of Jewish shalom. A closing benediction was used instead of the typical final health wish/farewell. More significantly, most NT letters were far longer and more complex. The typical private letter of the poor averaged 87 words in length. Literary letters were much longer. Cicero averaged 295 words. Seneca led, with an average 995 per letter. Paul’s letter to Rome has 7,114 words. Paul averaged (including all 13 letters) 2,495 words. Not surprisingly, Paul’s opponents ridiculed his letters as “weighty” (2Cor. 10:10).
Letters of the NT also assume that the audience is familiar with Jewish Christian tradition (e.g., Jude), inserting hymnic fragments, traditions, OT quotations/allusions, and so on, often without explanation or indication. The letters were to be read in front of the congregation (1Thess. 5:27). Paul included longer and more complex thanksgivings than any known ancient writer, often using the opening thanksgiving to preview the letter’s main topics (e.g., 1Cor. 1:4–7). Paul’s letters also contain large amounts of paraenesis (moral exhortation).
Although the typical papyrus letter was brief, thus keeping its cost reasonable, it was still not a trivial expense. For example, a soldier wrote a typical letter home to indicate that he had reached his assignment safely (P.Mich. 8.490), with a likely cost of about a half denarius, or in modern United States currency, about fifty dollars. Yet the length of many NT letters made them far more expensive. Writing to the Romans today would have cost Paul over two thousand U.S. dollars. A letter for public reading (Col. 4:16) needed quality papyrus in good handwriting, not some draft in hurried scrawl (Cicero, Att. 13.14–25). Appearances mattered. (For speakers, appearance was an important part of the rhetoric.)
The official Roman postal service was not for private use. The common person entrusted letters to someone already going to or near the desired destination. This method was popular, free, and surprisingly reliable, though haphazard (P.Mich. 8.499). Otherwise, sending a letter required dispatching a private carrier, often a slave, or a hired carrier (tabellarius). These carriers had advantages. They could guarantee the letter’s authenticity, since forgeries existed (2Thess. 2:2). If able, they carried other items, often mentioned in the letter (P.Mich. 8.465–467) or the reply (Phil. 4:18). Carriers often provided additional (or confidential) details (so Col. 4:7; Cicero, Fam. 11.20.4; 11.26.5). The writer often commended the carrier as “trustworthy” to guarantee the carrier’s veracity. In Eph. 6:20–22, Paul wants it clear that he intended Tychicus to talk about Paul’s imprisonment (as proof that Paul was not ashamed of his chains), and not that Tychicus was merely revealing secrets, as sometimes was done (1Cor. 1:11). Finally, Paul may have selected a specific carrier to facilitate that letter’s reception (Romans, Colossians). (See also Paul.)
Function
On the simplest level, letters had two primary functions. Expressions such as “I pray for your health and success” (P.Mich. 8.477) and “Write me how you are and what you want” (P.Mich. 8.498) were to start or keep a relationship with the recipient. Letters were also to inform (Cic-ero, Fam. 2.4.1), as when a son wrote his father, “While I was lying ill on the ship, they were stolen from me” (P.Mich. 8.468). Yet around the NT period, aristocratic writers (beginning with Cicero, then Seneca to Pliny) were modifying the simple private letter, lengthening it and elevating its style. They were using private letters to propagate religious, political, and philosophical ideas.
Scholarly study affected the study of NT letters for nearly one hundred years by arguing for a sharp distinction between “letters” (the letters of the lower classes, seen largely in the recently discovered papyri) and “epistles” (the literary letters of the aristocratic elite). Thus, Adolf Deissmann argued that the forms of NT letters (koine vocabulary, the diatribe, etc.) were indicators of the letter’s intended function: as private letters, they were artless, unschooled, and dashed off in the midst of a flurry of other activities. On the other hand, Cicero intended his “epistles” to Atticus to be read by the broader aristocratic community and thus wrote with that in mind, creating artfully composed treatises in letter form. Although they had the appearance of private letters, Cicero carefully crafted his “epistles,” knowing that others were reading over Atticus’s shoulder. NT letters were not “epistles”; they were spontaneous and should not be read as careful compositions. Yet biblical letters were not merely private documents. Even those addressed to individuals (1–2 Timothy, Titus) seem to speak to the church behind the recipient (3John attempts to work around Diotrephes and address the church behind Gaius). Our categories of “public” versus “private” fit the ancient world poorly. Since the general function of letters was changing, NT letters should be seen as part of this shifting landscape.
Moreover, as Greco-Roman letters continued to be studied, NT letters seemed more than mere artless notes, scribbled in a spare moment. Indeed, seeing signs of careful rhetorical composition, scholars have noted similarities with categories outlined in Greco-Roman rhetorical handbooks for speeches: forensic ( judicial), epideictic (demonstrative), and deliberative. Arguing that letters were, in a sense, written speeches, various scholars have attempted to identify elements in NT letters that match the required outline for a specific rhetorical argument, meaning that a letter’s rhetorical form could indicate its function. Thus, identifying the rhetorical form would reveal the author’s motive for writing, whether the writer was intending to make a legal defense of personal status or to shape the behavior of the readers. While these studies generate lively debate and some interesting results, the usefulness of applying them to letters is still unclear. Rhetorical analyses of passages in the letters have proved to be more helpful than those categorizing an entire letter. Obviously, biblical letter writers were not writing in a vacuum, but biblical letters seem to mix purposes and not fit neatly into rhetorical categories.
Biblical letters were not dashed off with anything remotely resembling the rapid-fire pace at which email and text messages are sent today. Even phrases that seem to imply casual correspondence (1Cor. 1:16) are more likely signs of careful rhetorical arguments. It is unlikely that biblical letters represent the work of just a long day or a few evenings. These letters show signs of careful composition (noticed more as scholars better understand ancient rhetoric and epistolary practices). The use of coworkers, secretaries, rough drafts, and revisions suggests that a NT letter was likely worked and reworked before being dispatched.
First Corinthians is the first of two NT letters written bythe apostle Paul to the Corinthian church. Paul visited Corinth onhis second missionary journey (Acts 18:1–18) for a year and ahalf before leaving for Syria. This period can be dated quiteprecisely, since Acts mentions a court hearing before Gallio,proconsul of Achaia, who served in AD 51–52. Several yearslater, during Paul’s third missionary journey, the Corinthiancorrespondence was written.
Context
Whilein Ephesus, Paul heard of immorality in the church at Corinth andresponded with a letter (1 Cor. 5:9). This letter is lost, butscholars have designated it as “Corinthians A” todistinguish it from the two canonical letters. About this time, threemen from Corinth brought a financial gift to Paul (1 Cor. 16:17)along with a list of questions, which Paul answers in another letter(see 7:1). This letter, known to us as 1 Corinthians, isdesignated by scholars as “Corinthians B,” since itis actually the second letter written by Paul to the church. (Formore on the order and naming of the Corinthian correspondence, seeCorinthians, Second Letter to the.)
Purpose
Inchapters 1–6 Paul deals with a number of problems in the churchat Corinth, including divisions, arrogance, immaturity, andimmorality; then, in chapters 7–16 he answers the questionssent to him by the church. Not only are the members of this churchnot unified, but also they are at odds with Paul himself. Paul seeksto reestablish his authority over the church.
Problemsin Corinth
Divisions.The church had divided sharply, aligning with different Christianleaders (1:12). There is no indication that this was encouraged bythese leaders. Paul points out that it was not he who was crucifiedfor them, and they were not baptized in his name. These groups hadformed in the name of wisdom, each group boasting of the superiorityof its leader’s teaching.
Paulappeals to them to end their divisions and to be unified in mind andthought. Christ is the head of the church, and he cannot be divided.Human wisdom is not the cornerstone of the church. God’s wisdomcan only be known spiritually; the person with the Spirit of Godunderstands the deep things of God (2:10–11). Those who thinkthemselves wise by human standards should become “foolish”in the worldly sense in order to be wise spiritually (3:18).
Confrontingimmorality.Paul is appalled at the sexual immorality at the church: a man issleeping with his own stepmother (5:1). This is forbidden in theTorah (Lev. 18:7–8) and even among pagan cultures. Worse thanthe sin, though, is the church community’s response: they areproud, boasting even. It is not clear whether Paul refers to theirgenerally inflated egos, a perverted sense of freedom in Christ, orthe fact that they consider themselves so open-minded as to allowsuch a sin; what is clear is that Paul has attempted to deal withthis before, in his first letter (“Corinthians A”;see 5:9). Paul orders that the man be put out of fellowship (this hestates four times) so that the man’s spirit may be saved (5:5).
Lawsuitsbetween believers.Conflicts in the church community had reached the point where churchmembers were seeking resolution in secular courts. Paul shames thesupposedly “wise” Corinthians for not solving their ownproblems. They are already defeated because they would rather bedeclared right by a nonbeliever than simply be wronged by a Christianbrother or sister (6:7).
Immoralitygenerally.The Corinthian church was begun when Paul abandoned his preaching tothe Jews in Corinth and went instead to the Gentiles (Acts 18:6).Apparently, the new converts have continued with much of their paganlifestyle, including visits to the temple prostitutes. To justifytheir behavior, the Corinthians had distorted Paul’s theologyof freedom: “I have the right to do anything,” they say.Paul reminds them, “But not everything is beneficial”(6:12). Paul’s corrective is for them to flee sexualimmorality, because their bodies are not their own; they have beenbought with a price (6:19–20).
Questionsfrom Corinth
Paulthen turns to questions brought him from the church, touching on manytopics relevant for the church today.
Marriage.Some of the Corinthians were claiming that celibacy was a higherspiritual state than marriage. Paul agrees that there are benefits tocelibacy and defends his own as a gift, but he also acknowledges thegoodness of marriage (7:1–11). Marriage is the appropriatecontext for sexual energy to be expressed, and husbands and wives areresponsible to each other sexually. For spiritual reasons they mayabstain from sexual relations for a brief time and by mutual consent,but then they must come back together. Divorce is not condoned,except in the case of an unbelieving spouse leaving the marriage.
Eachperson’s life should be lived in the situation in which he orshe was called. A man should not seek to change from circumcision touncircumcision or vice versa. Slaves should not seek freedom, andthose who are free should remain so. Married couples should staymarried; single believers should remain content in their singleness,though they do not sin by marrying.
Foodsacrificed to idols.Most of the meat eaten in the ancient world came from pagan shrinesand temples, where some of the animal was burned on the altar and therest sold at a market. Some Christians believed that eating the paganmeat was like worshiping the god to which it was sacrificed. Thequestion before Paul was, “Should Christians avoid meat frompagan sacrifices?”
Paulresponds by saying that the idol is nothing, and the association ofthe food with an idol is irrelevant. Yet, because new believers maystill associate the food with the idol and fall into sin, a Christianshould avoid this meat in their presence. At a meal with anunbeliever, the food may be eaten freely unless its source in idolworship is made an issue. Then, for the sake of the unbeliever’sconscience, the food must be refused.
Issuesin worship.Paul’s discussion on head coverings in chapter 11 is among themost difficult in the NT because the background and context areobscure to us. Clearly, the Corinthians were being inappropriate indress or hairstyles in either a sexual or a religious context, orboth. We can draw a principle from Paul’s arguments: Christiansshould not blur the visual distinctions between the sexes, nor shouldthey offend contemporary customs and fashion in a particular church.As with the food sacrificed to idols, one’s effect on fellowChristians is paramount in one’s actions.
Likewisein the Lord’s Supper, the church must be unified in thiscentral part of worship. The church was fracturing along class andeconomic lines when it came to the “love feast,” acommunal meal shared by the church in conjunction with the Lord’sSupper. The rich were coming early to the meal and gorgingthemselves, while the poor had nothing to eat. Paul warns the churchof God’s severe judgment for such inequities and instructs themto all partake together (11:33).
Paulalso applies the theme of unity to the gifts of the Spirit, but hereit is diversity within unity. The many different gifts are given bythe same Spirit and are intended for accomplishing God’s work.Although some of the gifts are more spectacular, the greater giftsare faith, hope, and love.
Theresurrection.To the question “Will there be a physical resurrection of thedead?” Paul gives an extensive explanation of the gospelmessage. The resurrection is central to the gospel; without it,Christian faith is in vain (15:14). But Christ was raised as thefirstfruits of the dead, and in him all will be made alive (15:22).Christians will be raised with a glorified body, imperishable,powerful, and spiritual (15:42–44).
Outline
I.Greeting (1:1–9)
II.Problems in Corinth (1:10–6:20)
A.Divisions in the church (1:10–4:21)
B.Immoral situations (5:1–13)
C.Lawsuits between believers (6:1–11)
D.Immorality generally (6:12–20)
III.Questions from Corinth (7:1–16:4)
A.Marriage (7:1–40)
B.Food sacrificed to idols (8:1–11:1)
C.Issues in worship (11:2–14:40)
D.The resurrection (15:1–58)
E.The collection for Jerusalem (16:1–4)
IV.Conclusion (16:5–24)
A Jewish prophet at the time of Jesus, he was the son ofpriestly parents (Zechariah and Elizabeth), executed by HerodAntipas, and identified as “John” (a common Jewish name),often with the title “the Baptist” or “theBaptizer,” the latter possibly being the older title.
Ourprimary sources on John the Baptist are the canonical Gospels,Josephus (Ant. 18.116–19), and Acts. Both Jewish and Christiansources note John’s message of the kingdom, call to baptism,and popularity. Josephus and the Gospels can speak of him withoutintroduction. In the Gospels, only Jesus is a more prominentcharacter. It is possible that the typical peasant was more familiarwith John than with Jesus, at least until after Pentecost.
TheGospels, particularly Luke, parallel the stories of John and Jesus.Both had an annunciation, a miraculous birth accompanied by praise,and a martyr’s death. Both gathered disciples, announced thekingdom, denounced the Jewish leadership, and practiced baptism. Itis easy to see how some on the periphery confused the characters(Mark 8:28).
Ministry
Dressedin a prophet’s garment of camel’s hair (Matt. 3:4; cf.2Kings 1:8; Zech. 13:4), the Baptist is noted for emerging fromthe wilderness and preaching near the Jordan. He called all listenersto repent to prepare Israel for the coming covenant of the Spirit. Heand his message were well known, disconcerting Jerusalem’spowerful elite (Mark 11:32) and enthralling the masses (Matt. 3:5–6).
Johnthe Baptist unwaveringly maintained that he was sent to introduce theSon (or Chosen One) of God, who would baptize with the Holy Spirit(John 1:33–34; cf. Matt. 3:11–12 pars.). This one was notnamed, but the Baptist was told how he would know him: “The manon whom you see the Spirit come down and remain is the one”(John 1:33). Thus, the Baptist could claim, “I myself did notknow him” (John 1:31), more likely meaning that the Baptist didnot know Jesus was the one until the Spirit descended on him (1:32).It is less likely that John meant that he had not met his cousinpreviously (Luke 1:39–45). Jesus accepts (and validates) theBaptist’s proclamation both at the beginning of his ministry(Mark 1:9) and again later (Luke 16:16; John 5:35; 10:41).
Afterhis imprisonment, the Baptist seems less certain of his earlieridentification of Jesus as the coming one (Matt. 11:2–3). Itshould also be noted that John had not disbanded his disciples. Afterhis death, some continued to preach his baptism of repentance as faraway as in Ephesus (Acts 18:24–26; 19:1–7). Similarly,Jesus’ last description of the Baptist is ambiguous. It isguarded but still complimentary (John 5:32–36; 10:41) and evenlofty: “Among those born of women there has not arisen anyonegreater than John the Baptist”; however, Jesus’ nextstatement could be interpreted to mean that the Baptist was not yetpart of the coming kingdom: “Yet whoever is least in thekingdom of heaven is greater than he” (Matt. 11:11). Likeeveryone else, John was confused by Jesus’ preaching ministry.Jesus was not acting like the Messiah they were expecting (Luke7:18–20). The Gospels offer no final verdict on the Baptist.
Message
LikeIsaiah, the Baptist’s message of restoration of the kingdommeant comfort and hope for those preparing for its arrival (Isa. 40;Mark 1:2–6) and judgment for those unprepared (Isa. 41; Matt.3:7–10; Luke 3:7–9). The return of the kingdom was by anew covenant, marked by the Spirit (Mark 1:2–8). Cleansing withwater is connected to replacing the old covenant (etched in stone)with the new (imbedded in hearts with the Spirit) by the prophets(Ezek. 36:24–28; Jer. 31), by the Baptist (John 1:31–33),by Jesus (John 3:5), and by early Christians (2Cor. 3; Heb.9–10). Preparing (Matt. 3:3) meant repenting and living inpiety and justice as a member of the kingdom (Luke 3:10–14).This commitment of renewed faithfulness was marked by one’s own(ethical) cleansing, symbolized in baptism. While ritual lustrationswere somewhat common for initiation or membership in a group, Johnthe Baptist called all who would devote themselves to God to repent,confess their sins, and be baptized (Mark 1:4–5).
TheSynoptic Gospels portray Jesus and John as allies in announcing thekingdom. It has been argued that the Fourth Gospel has ananti-Baptist polemic. Because of historical elements (in Ephesus?),it may be more accurate to say that the Fourth Gospel strives toclarify the Baptist’s place in salvation history. He issubordinate to Jesus by divine design (John 1–5) and by deed(John 10:41). He was the Elijah who was to come before the Christ(Matt. 11:14).
A missive or epistle (2Chron. 35:4; Ezra 4:7). Usually, ancient Near Eastern letters were written on perishable materials, as opposed to, for example, inscriptions in stone. Since there are few places where such material could survive (deserts or anaerobic bogs), one would expect few surviving letters; yet they number in the tens of thousands. The ancients were letter writers. Significantly, reading old letters has remained a significant aspect of the Christian faith. Today, many Christians regularly read someone else’s mail—the letters of the NT—and face the expected interpretation challenges.
Form
Old Testament letters. Although more than a dozen letters are embedded in the OT (e.g., 2Sam. 11:15; 1Kings 21:9–10; 2Chron. 21:12–15), no OT book is in letter form. Embedded OT letters are truncated or summaries and tell us little of the typical ancient format. From the Lachish letters we infer that Hebrew letters generally opened with “To Addressee, greetings (or blessing),” a technical word of transition (“and now”), and no formal closing. By the Second Temple period, Aramaic letters were evolving into the structure seen in Greco-Roman style.
New Testament letters. Unlike the OT, the NT has twenty-one books in letter form: the thirteen traditional letters of Paul, the anonymous letter of Hebrews, James, 1–2 Peter, 1–3 John, and Jude. Two letters are embedded in Acts (15:23–29; 23:26–30). It is unlikely that the “letters” in Rev. 2–3 were ever dispatched letters. The NT also mentions other letters (Acts 18:27; 1Cor. 5:9; 7:1; 16:3; 2Cor. 2:3–4; Col. 4:16; 2Thess. 2:2; 3:17).
Extant NT letters share the basic format of Greco-Roman letters, beginning with “Sender to Recipient, greetings [chairein].” A prayer (much less commonly a thanksgiving) transitioned into the letter body. The body of the letter opened with various phrases in a set format (stereotyped formula), such as disclosure: “I want you to know, brother(s), that...” (P.Oxy. 1493; Gal. 1:11); astonishment: “I am astonished how...” (P.Mich. 8.479; Gal. 1:6); petition, joy, and so forth.
The letter closed with final admonitions, greetings, good wishes, and sometimes a date. In addition to a set structure, the content was often far more stereotypical than letters today. Even letters to a family member had generic greetings, set phraseology, and standardized wishes for good health.
Yet, looking beyond the basic letter outline and the use of everyday language and formulas, it becomes clear that NT letters were not part and parcel with typical papyrus letters. Rather than the typical honor markers of rank or city, NT letter writers identified themselves by association with Jesus, sometimes describing themselves as slaves in his household (Rom. 1:1; James 1:1). The typical letter greeting (chairein) was Christianized into “grace” (charis), with the addition of “peace” (eirēnē)—the equivalent of Jewish shalom. A closing benediction was used instead of the typical final health wish/farewell. More significantly, most NT letters were far longer and more complex. The typical private letter of the poor averaged 87 words in length. Literary letters were much longer. Cicero averaged 295 words. Seneca led, with an average 995 per letter. Paul’s letter to Rome has 7,114 words. Paul averaged (including all 13 letters) 2,495 words. Not surprisingly, Paul’s opponents ridiculed his letters as “weighty” (2Cor. 10:10).
Letters of the NT also assume that the audience is familiar with Jewish Christian tradition (e.g., Jude), inserting hymnic fragments, traditions, OT quotations/allusions, and so on, often without explanation or indication. The letters were to be read in front of the congregation (1Thess. 5:27). Paul included longer and more complex thanksgivings than any known ancient writer, often using the opening thanksgiving to preview the letter’s main topics (e.g., 1Cor. 1:4–7). Paul’s letters also contain large amounts of paraenesis (moral exhortation).
Although the typical papyrus letter was brief, thus keeping its cost reasonable, it was still not a trivial expense. For example, a soldier wrote a typical letter home to indicate that he had reached his assignment safely (P.Mich. 8.490), with a likely cost of about a half denarius, or in modern United States currency, about fifty dollars. Yet the length of many NT letters made them far more expensive. Writing to the Romans today would have cost Paul over two thousand U.S. dollars. A letter for public reading (Col. 4:16) needed quality papyrus in good handwriting, not some draft in hurried scrawl (Cicero, Att. 13.14–25). Appearances mattered. (For speakers, appearance was an important part of the rhetoric.)
The official Roman postal service was not for private use. The common person entrusted letters to someone already going to or near the desired destination. This method was popular, free, and surprisingly reliable, though haphazard (P.Mich. 8.499). Otherwise, sending a letter required dispatching a private carrier, often a slave, or a hired carrier (tabellarius). These carriers had advantages. They could guarantee the letter’s authenticity, since forgeries existed (2Thess. 2:2). If able, they carried other items, often mentioned in the letter (P.Mich. 8.465–467) or the reply (Phil. 4:18). Carriers often provided additional (or confidential) details (so Col. 4:7; Cicero, Fam. 11.20.4; 11.26.5). The writer often commended the carrier as “trustworthy” to guarantee the carrier’s veracity. In Eph. 6:20–22, Paul wants it clear that he intended Tychicus to talk about Paul’s imprisonment (as proof that Paul was not ashamed of his chains), and not that Tychicus was merely revealing secrets, as sometimes was done (1Cor. 1:11). Finally, Paul may have selected a specific carrier to facilitate that letter’s reception (Romans, Colossians). (See also Paul.)
Function
On the simplest level, letters had two primary functions. Expressions such as “I pray for your health and success” (P.Mich. 8.477) and “Write me how you are and what you want” (P.Mich. 8.498) were to start or keep a relationship with the recipient. Letters were also to inform (Cic-ero, Fam. 2.4.1), as when a son wrote his father, “While I was lying ill on the ship, they were stolen from me” (P.Mich. 8.468). Yet around the NT period, aristocratic writers (beginning with Cicero, then Seneca to Pliny) were modifying the simple private letter, lengthening it and elevating its style. They were using private letters to propagate religious, political, and philosophical ideas.
Scholarly study affected the study of NT letters for nearly one hundred years by arguing for a sharp distinction between “letters” (the letters of the lower classes, seen largely in the recently discovered papyri) and “epistles” (the literary letters of the aristocratic elite). Thus, Adolf Deissmann argued that the forms of NT letters (koine vocabulary, the diatribe, etc.) were indicators of the letter’s intended function: as private letters, they were artless, unschooled, and dashed off in the midst of a flurry of other activities. On the other hand, Cicero intended his “epistles” to Atticus to be read by the broader aristocratic community and thus wrote with that in mind, creating artfully composed treatises in letter form. Although they had the appearance of private letters, Cicero carefully crafted his “epistles,” knowing that others were reading over Atticus’s shoulder. NT letters were not “epistles”; they were spontaneous and should not be read as careful compositions. Yet biblical letters were not merely private documents. Even those addressed to individuals (1–2 Timothy, Titus) seem to speak to the church behind the recipient (3John attempts to work around Diotrephes and address the church behind Gaius). Our categories of “public” versus “private” fit the ancient world poorly. Since the general function of letters was changing, NT letters should be seen as part of this shifting landscape.
Moreover, as Greco-Roman letters continued to be studied, NT letters seemed more than mere artless notes, scribbled in a spare moment. Indeed, seeing signs of careful rhetorical composition, scholars have noted similarities with categories outlined in Greco-Roman rhetorical handbooks for speeches: forensic ( judicial), epideictic (demonstrative), and deliberative. Arguing that letters were, in a sense, written speeches, various scholars have attempted to identify elements in NT letters that match the required outline for a specific rhetorical argument, meaning that a letter’s rhetorical form could indicate its function. Thus, identifying the rhetorical form would reveal the author’s motive for writing, whether the writer was intending to make a legal defense of personal status or to shape the behavior of the readers. While these studies generate lively debate and some interesting results, the usefulness of applying them to letters is still unclear. Rhetorical analyses of passages in the letters have proved to be more helpful than those categorizing an entire letter. Obviously, biblical letter writers were not writing in a vacuum, but biblical letters seem to mix purposes and not fit neatly into rhetorical categories.
Biblical letters were not dashed off with anything remotely resembling the rapid-fire pace at which email and text messages are sent today. Even phrases that seem to imply casual correspondence (1Cor. 1:16) are more likely signs of careful rhetorical arguments. It is unlikely that biblical letters represent the work of just a long day or a few evenings. These letters show signs of careful composition (noticed more as scholars better understand ancient rhetoric and epistolary practices). The use of coworkers, secretaries, rough drafts, and revisions suggests that a NT letter was likely worked and reworked before being dispatched.
Paul’s missionary journeys took him through this regionin south-central Asia Minor where the cities of Lystra and Derbe lay(Acts 14:6–22; 18:23; 19:1).
Paul’s missionary journeys took him through this regionin south-central Asia Minor where the cities of Lystra and Derbe lay(Acts 14:6–22; 18:23; 19:1).
Both men and women could take the Nazirite vow (Num. 6:1–21),consecrating themselves to God and abstaining from all grapevineproducts, avoiding contact with corpses, and allowing their hair togrow long. The first two stipulations mandate separation fromconditions reflective of decay and corruption, clearly an affront toGod’s holiness (cf. Amos 2:11–12). Long hair was the signof the vow, symbolic of the power of God (Judg. 16:17).
Inadvertentlytouching a corpse interrupted the vow. Rededication necessitatedshaving the head and sacrificing sin and burnt offerings, along witha guilt offering for having defiled something holy (Lev. 5:14–19).The vow could last one’s entire life, as was intended forSamson (Judg. 13:7) and Samuel (1Sam. 1:11), or it could simplybe for a period of time (Acts 18:18; 21:24). In the latter case, thevow was terminated with the presentation of sin, burnt, andfellowship offerings and shaving and burning the hair at thetabernacle.
Anindividual could take the vow by personal volition, or it could beimposed by others. Most of the biblical examples fall into the lattercategory. The angel of the Lord declared that Samson would be aNazirite for his entire life, although Samson despised the sanctityof the vow in just about every way (Judg. 13–16). Hannahdedicated Samuel for his life (1Sam. 1:11). John the Baptistwas also apparently given over to these conditions by the word of theangel Gabriel (Luke 1:15).
A transliteration of the Greek word synagōgē,meaning “gathering, assembly, meeting.” In English, theword “synagogue” refers either to a Jewish congregationor to the place where that congregation meets. Synagogues of thebiblical era functioned as both religious and civic centers for theJewish community.
Origins
Theorigin of synagogues is uncertain. The earliest archaeologicalevidence is from Egypt in the third century BC, consisting ofinscriptions and a papyrus letter. The oldest architectural find isfrom the island of Delos in the Aegean Sea, although whether this wasconstructed as a synagogue or redesigned into one is unknown, as iswhether it was Jewish or Samaritan. The oldest structures yet foundin Israel consist of two rooms at Qumran and the synagogue at Gamla,which date from the late first century BC. In Capernaum, the basaltsynagogue was built by a Gentile centurion for the community in thefirst century AD (Luke 7:1–5).
Bythat time, synagogues were well attested in Israel, elsewhere in theRoman Empire, and in Egypt (Matt. 4:23; Luke 4:44; Acts 9:2; 17:10,16–17; 18:8, 19). Synagogues were found wherever there werecommunities of Jews, in cities and rural areas alike. Especially inDiaspora settings or remote locations, they were the heart of Jewishlife. Several hypotheses have been suggested to account for theirapparently sudden appearance.
Somebelieve that synagogues were developed during the Babyloniancaptivity as the response of the exile community to the destructionof their temple and sacrificial system. Despite these enormouslosses, the Jews still had the Torah, and from that point forwardworship and prayer based on the reading and studying of theScriptures, which could be done locally, began to gain ascendancy.Critics of this idea, however, point out that while it makes sense,there is no direct evidence to support it.
Othersthink that the spread of Hellenism in the second century BCprecipitated a crisis of identity among Jews. For example,1Maccabees reports with distress that some Jews had abandonedthe covenant and teamed with the Hellenists, even going so far as tobuild a Greek-style gymnasium in Jerusalem (1:11–15). Thus, thethought is that synagogues were a form of resistance to theoverwhelming and perversely appealing cultural changes of the day.
Morerecently, it has been suggested that synagogues were the gradualsuccessors to functions that had previously taken place at citygates. First-century synagogues served a wide range of functions forthe community. Throughout Israel’s prior history, however,these same activities—assembly, legal, social, educational, andreligious—had taken place at the city gate (Deut. 12:15; 2Sam.15:2; 2Kings 23:8; Neh. 8:1–8). The Gamla synagogue sitsagainst the east city wall next to a probable gate, and its locationcould be evidence of the slow development of the synagogue as citygates changed from multipurpose facilities to portals of ingress andegress.
First-CenturySynagogues
First-centurysynagogues served as integrated centers supporting Jewish life.Regular communal reading and exposition of Scripture, includingteaching and discussion of the law and transmission of its complexassociated traditions (Luke 4:16; Acts 13:14–15), occurredthere. Although formal liturgical rites evolved after the destructionof the temple in AD 70, synagogues were places of prayer in the firstcentury (Matt. 6:5). Synagogues also served as courtrooms and placeswhere crimes were punished (Acts 22:19), as well as locations forcommon meals and festivals (see Acts 6:2).
Synagogueswere administered by local community leaders, including a presidentand a board (Acts 13:15). Synagogue leaders named in the NT includeJairus (Mark 5:22; Luke 8:41), Crispus (Acts 18:8), and Sosthenes(Acts 18:17). The role of the leader was to preside over services, torule as the judge in court cases, to represent the community, andoften to act as a patron. The board served in an advisory role andassisted with teaching. A scribe maintained community records andtaught.
Congregationsincluded Pharisees, who advocated strict adherence to the law,although they were chided by Jesus for their false piety (Luke11:42–44). Women participated in the synagogue along with themen, and in some cases they were financial donors (cf. Luke 8:3).God-fearing Gentiles were welcomed (Acts 17:17). In Jerusalem,synagogues included both Hebrews and Jews from the Diaspora (Acts6:1, 9).
Asynagogue could be a designated room in a house or a discretebuilding. Most of the better archaeological evidence is later thanthe first century and reveals more clearly religious intentionalityin design than may have been characteristic earlier. This evidenceincludes the door facing Jerusalem, artistic temple motifs, a nichefor the Torah scrolls, and perimeter bench seating around an opencentral hall.
TheSynagogue in the Bible
Sincesynagogues were institutions with a documented history no earlierthan the third century BC, they are not mentioned in the OT. TheGreek word from which the English one is derived does appearfrequently in the LXX, but always with a general reference to agathering, assembly, or meeting.
Rabbinichistory (but not Scripture) makes reference to the “GreatSynagogue,” meaning a group of men who transmitted traditionsfrom the prophets to the earliest named rabbinic teachers. It isloosely based on Neh. 8–10, which describes the prayers andactions of the Jewish leaders who had returned from exile.
Synagoguesfrequently were locations of the teaching and healing ministry ofJesus. He began preaching the kingdom of God, teaching, andperforming healing miracles in Galilean synagogues (Matt. 4:23; 9:35;12:9; 13:54; Mark 1:21–29, 39; 3:1; 6:2; Luke 4:15–38,44; 6:6–11; 13:10–17; John 6:59; 18:20). Later, theapostle Paul customarily initiated his mission work in the localsynagogue at each of his destinations (Acts 9:19–20; 13:5,14–15; 14:1; 17:1, 10, 17; 18:1–8; 19:8).
Thelast (and, from a twenty-first-century perspective, mostcontroversial) use of the word “synagogue” in Scriptureis the difficult phrase “synagogue of Satan” (Rev. 2:9;3:9), which must be read in its context. This was written in responseto the significant persecution in Asia Minor of the churches atSmyrna and Philadelphia by Jews who were in collusion with the Romanauthorities. They were falsely accusing Jewish and Gentile Christianbelievers, creating unspeakable suffering for them. This phrase,intended to encourage Christian perseverance, implies that thechurches in view represented true Israel, while their accusers werefalse Jews. Similar language was used by the covenant-keepingcommunity in Qumran when, in the DSS, it referred to apostate Jews asa “congregation of Belial” and an “assembly ofhypocrites” (1QHa 10:22; 15:34).
Part of the Corinthian correspondence, along with1 Corinthians. These two letters are part of a larger body ofcorrespondence written by the apostle Paul to the Corinthian church.Paul visited Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1–18)for a year and a half before leaving for Syria. This period can bedated quite precisely, since Acts mentions a court hearing beforeGallio, proconsul of Achaia, who served in AD 51–52. It wasseveral years later, during Paul’s third missionary journey,that the Corinthian correspondence was written.
Context
Whilein Ephesus, Paul heard of immorality in the church at Corinth andresponded with a letter (1 Cor. 5:9). This letter is lost buthas been designated by scholars as “Corinthians A”to distinguish it from the two canonical letters. About this time,three men from Corinth brought a financial gift to Paul (1 Cor.16:17) along with a list of questions, which Paul answers in anotherletter (see 1 Cor. 7:1). This letter, known to us as1 Corinthians, is designated by scholars as “Corinthians B,”since it is actually the second letter written by Paul to the church.Some time later, Paul heard that his letter had not solved many ofthe problems at Corinth, so he made a visit. This went very poorly(see 2 Cor. 2:1), and Paul sent a sorrowful letter (2 Cor.2:3–4, 9; 7:8, 12), designated by scholars as “Corinthians C.”This letter is also lost, though some think that it may be preservedin 2 Cor. 10–13. When Paul heard later that the Corinthianchurch had repented and wished to reconcile with him, he wasoverjoyed and wrote yet again. This letter, which scholars call“Corinthians D,” is known to us as 2 Corinthians.The sharp change in tone of chapters 10–13 perhaps represents afifth letter (designated “Corinthians E”) reflectingongoing friction with a strong minority faction within the church, orthese chapters may reflect Paul addressing one unrepentant divisionin the course of the “D” letter.
Purpose
Falseteachers in the church at Corinth had attacked Paul’s teachingand authority. Their charges can be seen in 2 Corinthians: Paulwas fickle (1:17, 18, 23), proud and boastful (3:1; 5:12), worldly(10:2), unimpressive in appearance and speech (10:10; 11:6), confusedand foolish (5:13; 11:16–19), dishonest (12:16–19), and“not a true apostle” (11:5; 12:11–12). Paul writesto defend his ministry and authority.
Themes
Paulgives a wonderful description of his apostolic ministry. He is acaptive in Christ’s triumphal procession, spreading the aromaof the gospel wherever he goes. This aroma is the smell of death tosome, but life to others (2:16). He needs no letter ofrecommendation, as the church at Corinth is his letter, written onhuman hearts. The gospel is unlike the fading glory in Moses’face (see Exod. 34:33); in fact, relationship with God during the oldcovenant was accomplished only through a veil, which still covershearts when Moses is read. Rather, Christians bask in the unveiledglory of the Lord and are transformed into the Lord’s imagewith ever greater glory (3:18), carrying in their bodies the death ofJesus, so that the life of Jesus may be revealed in them (4:10).
Theearthly consequence of this ministry is pain and suffering. Paul isconstantly struggling, yet never defeated (4:8–9). But thespiritual reward is great: an eternal home with the Lord in heaven,with the Spirit given to him during this life as a deposit of what isto come (5:5).
Beginningwith chapter 10, Paul’s tone changes sharply, becoming muchmore aggressive as he defends his apostolic authority. His gentlenature in person, which may have been mistaken by some of theCorinthians for weakness, is really Christlikeness in Paul. He fightsnot as the world does, but rather on the spiritual level, withweapons that can demolish all arguments (10:4). He hopes that he willnot have to unleash his power when he comes to see them, though hewill if necessary (10:6).
Paul’sopponents in Corinth have been exercising false authority beyondtheir rightful limits. They commend themselves and boast of theirworks. Paul promises to remain within the sphere assigned him by God,and he assures them that his sphere includes their church (10:13).
Inchapter 11 Paul begins speaking “as a fool.” Hisopponents apparently have referred to him as a fool, so he allowshimself some latitude to do this. If he were a fool, he would boastof his accomplishments as an apostle. His opponents boast aboutthemselves; Paul has more to boast about. He also is a Hebrew, adescendant of Abraham, and a servant of Christ; in fact, he is more.He has worked harder; he has been imprisoned more, beaten more,stoned, and shipwrecked; he has gone without food and water; he hasbeen cold and naked. He has had visions and revelations, and he hasbeen caught up in heaven and heard things that he may not repeat. Yethe would rather boast of his weakness, for his worldly weaknessallows him to be strong in Christ. Paul should have been commended bythe Corinthians, yet he has been reduced to having to defend himselfboastfully.
DuringPaul’s next visit, he will continue his habit of supportinghimself, so as not to be a burden on the Corinthians (see Acts 18:3).He has not asked them to support him (though it was his right [see1 Cor. 9]), yet they have accused him of trickery (12:16; seealso 1:12). He hopes that he will not be forced to deal harshly withthem, but they demand proof that Christ speaks through him (13:3). Hewould rather use the authority that God has given him to build themup, not tear them down (13:10).
Outline
I.Greeting (1:1–11)
II.Paul Defends His Ministry (1:12–7:16)
A.Paul explains his conduct (1:12–2:13)
B.Paul describes his ministry (2:14–7:1)
C.Reconciliation with the Corinthians (7:2–16)
III.The Collection for Jerusalem (8:1–9:15)
A.Generosity encouraged (8:1–15)
B.Titus’s credentials (8:16–9:5)
C.Results of giving generously (9:6–15)
IV.Paul Defends His Authority (10:1–13:10)
A.Paul gives them warning (10:1–18)
B.Paul speaks ironically as a “fool” (11:1–12:13)
C.Paul’s planned visit (12:14–13:10)
V.Conclusion (13:11–14)
Cities, towns, and villages were essential parts of a commoncivilization pattern shared by the ancient Near East and the Bible.Towns and cities were designed to provide the basic needs ofsecurity, shelter, and sustenance to enable their populations toengage in a variety of social, economic, religious, and politicalactivities.
Theurban picture of the biblical world is complicated by severalfactors. The first is the large span of time covered in the Bible.The urban chronology of Scripture begins at the moment of the firstattempt at city building (Gen. 4:17) and ends with the revelation ofthe new Jerusalem, the city of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:2).
Moreover,the Bible is not concerned with providing a detailed commentary onthe expansion of city and urban life. It is true that several of thegreat cities of the ancient Near East and the Greco-Roman world arementioned in the pages of the Bible; however, many of the religious,social, economic, and political factors involved in the developmentof urban life are not identified or discussed. The archaeologicalrecord often suggests a more complex picture.
Inaddition, a wide variety of terms are used broadly andinterchangeably in the Scriptures to describe settlement patterns andsocio-urban structures. For example, the specific differences betweena city, a town, and a village are not clearly identified in thebiblical text. Normally, a city had a fortified wall or other type ofdefensive enclosure, while a town or village did not.
Furthermore,city status was not necessarily determined by size. Ancient citieswere much smaller. During the reign of Solomon, Jerusalem coveredabout thirty-three acres. But by the time of Jesus it measured nearlytwo hundred acres. Jericho, the oldest city in Palestine, was nolarger than ten acres. The archaeological record suggests thatJericho was occupied by at least 7000 BC. Hazor, one of the largestcities in the upper Galilee, covered 175 acres. The dimensions ofPalestinian cities were minuscule compared to the great pagan citiessuch as Nineveh, Babylon, and Rome.
ArchaeologicalEvidence
Archaeologicalevidence suggests that some of the chief concerns of city buildingremained constant over time. Cities were planted along main highwaysor trade routes. Often a city sat at important crossroads orintersections. An adequate water supply was necessary, as were rawmaterials for shelter and industry. The site had to be easy to defendand surrounded by adjacent agricultural land sufficient to sustainthe population. All cities in the ancient Near East built walls andcity gates. Most featured an acropolis or citadel and a workingsystem of city streets. Many cities contained a sanctuary or highplace where individuals could worship.
Atleast four major phases of urbanization in Palestine occurred duringthe biblical period.
EarlyBronze Age II (3000–2700 BC).Although Jericho and other cities had their origin in theChalcolithic period, the Early Bronze Age produced a significantexpansion of urban life. Cities in this period included Megiddo, Ai,Gezer, Arad, Jericho, and others. Larger sites protected byfortifications with gates are characteristic of this period. Temples,fortified citadels, and residential houses were found arranged alongstreets and thoroughfares inside the city. The water supply became acommunity concern, and steps were taken to conserve runoff water intolarge reservoirs or cisterns. Such urban planning presupposes asocial hierarchy in the differentiation of labor and need. Farmers,craftsmen, and traders, as well as priests and rulers, worked andlived side by side in the city.
MiddleBronze Age IIB (1750–1650 BC).In the second wave of urbanization, the Canaanites refortified andrebuilt older settlements such as Dan, Hazor, Megiddo, and Shechem.Other sites, such as Bethel and Beth Shemesh, were established as newsettlements. Distinctive walls, fortifications, gates, and culticarchitecture characterized this period. Mud-brick was a commonconstruction material. Larger city-states controlled agriculturalresources and ruled numerous villages and settlements within theirimmediate vicinity. These city-states often joined together inpolitical alliances. Cuneiform documents from Mari and Hazor providea glimpse into the social, cultural, and political life in the citiesof this period. This wave of urbanization began to decline by theLate Bronze Age.
IronAge II (1000–586 BC).Early Iron Age settlements developed alongside the declining LateBronze cities as rough camps, simple enclosures, and villages in thehighlands of Palestine. Later, during the monarchial period, some ofthe villages and cities expanded into full urban centers, followingroyal hierarchical and administrative blueprints. Cities containedadministrative buildings, enhanced fortifications and gates, newwater systems, and planned street systems offering systematicdrainage. Housing generally followed a typical pattern. Stone becamethe construction material of choice. Both the united monarchy and thedivided kingdoms of Israel and Judah established royal cities,administrative centers, fortified border cities, and fortresses.Urban life gravitated toward the upkeep of a central religious andeconomic royal administration.
Romanperiod.As a champion of all things Hellenic, Alexander the Great introducedthe Greek city, or polis, into the oriental culture of the Levant.This new type of city, with its theaters, gymnasia, statues, andcolonnades, served as a beacon of Greek civilization. Such citiesattracted Greek settlers, traders, and local natives (Acts 18:1–3,18–28; Rom. 16:3–5; 1 Cor. 16:19). The Greek agora(marketplace) replaced the Palestinian city gate as the center oftrade and commerce. Sepphoris and the towns of the Decapolis wereexamples of this type of city in Palestine. The Romans imitated theHellenistic city plan but emphasized one main north-souththoroughfare (cardo) and east-west streets. Building activity inPalestine flourished under Herod the Great (37–4 BC). Herebuilt, expanded, and renamed many Palestinian sites, such asCaesarea, Sebaste, and the Tower of Antonia in Jerusalem. Herodradically changed the landscape of Jerusalem, rebuilding there on amassive scale not only the palace but also the temple.
OldTestament
Thecommon Hebrew word for “city,” ’ir, occurs 1,093times in the OT. English versions normally translate the word as“city,” but sometimes “town” is used. Thesame term is found outside the Bible in one of the Lachish lettersand as a cognate in several Semitic languages. The etymology of ’iris not clear, but it may be related to the Sumerian word for “city,”uru. The word may have originally designated a fortified or protectedplace.
Inthe OT, ’ir can be applied to a wide range of settlements,including villages, towns, and capital cities regardless of size orlocation. For example, Deut. 3:5 speaks of cities fortified with highwalls, gates, and bars in the same sentence with “rural towns”or “country settlements” [NIV: “unwalledvillages”]. On the other hand, a distinction is made between a“walled city” and a “village” in Lev. 25:29,31. In Num. 13:19 Moses specifically charges the spies with the taskof determining whether the Canaanite cities are fortified or morelike camps. Cities given to the Levites in Num. 35:1–8 alsoincluded the surrounding pasturelands connected with them. A numberof times the OT speaks of the fields associated with a city orvillage (Lev. 25:34; Josh. 21:12; Neh. 11:25, 30).
Citieswere also given special designations or names. Cities of refuge areso designated to provide protection for individuals who havecommitted accidental manslaughter (Num. 35:11; Josh. 20:2; 1 Chron.6:57). Jericho was called “the City of Palms” (Deut.34:3; 2 Chron. 28:15). Jerusalem was known as “the City ofDavid” (1 Kings 3:1; 2 Chron. 5:2), “Zion”(Isa. 33:20; Zech. 8:3; Heb. 12:22), and “the holy city”(Isa. 52:1; Rev. 21:1).
Twoother Hebrew terms are often translated “city.” The nounqeret occurs only five times in biblical poetry (Job 29:7; Prov. 8:3;9:3, 14; 11:11). The noun qiryah is found twenty-nine times. It issometimes translated “town” in the NIV (Deut. 2:36; Job39:7; Isa. 25:2; Jer. 49:25; Hos. 7:12). The etymology of either wordis uncertain, but both may be derived from qir (“wall”).In many cases qiryah functions as a synonym of ’ir.
InDeut. 2:36 and 3:4 qiryah is used to designate the towns taken by theIsraelites in Transjordan. Heshbon is identified in Num. 21:28 as the“town” (qiryah; NIV: “city”) of Sihon. Theword qiryah is also found in the names of several towns, such asKiriath Jearim (Josh. 15:9) and Kiriath Sepher (Josh. 15:15). Hebronwas originally Kiriath Arba (Gen. 23:2; 35:27), and Balaam rode toKiriath Huzoth (Num. 22:39). Shaveh Kiriathaim (Gen. 14:5) andKiriathaim (Num. 32:37) contain a form of qiryah.
Smallercommunities were called “villages” or “settlements”(Gen. 25:16; Lev. 25:31; Deut. 2:23). Some of these were connected toa larger city or provincial center. The book of Joshua commonlyspeaks of a city or town and “its villages” (Josh. 13–19;cf. 1 Chron. 6:26). In addition, the Hebrew phrase “daughtersof” (i.e., settlements) is frequently used to identify smallervillages under the jurisdiction of a larger city and dependent uponit (Num. 21:25, 32; 32:42; Josh. 15:45, 47; Neh. 11:25–31).
NewTestament
TheGreek word polis occurs 163 times in the NT and is translated as“town” or “city.” Several sites are calledpolis: Nazareth (Matt. 2:23), Capernaum (Luke 4:31), Arimathea (Luke23:51), Bethlehem (John 7:42), and others. Jerusalem is called “theholy city” (Matt. 4:5; cf. Rev. 3:12), “the city of theGreat King” (Matt. 5:35), and “the city of the livingGod” (Heb. 12:22). During his ministry, Jesus preached in thetowns of Galilee (Matt. 11:1) and Samaria (Matt. 10:5). In the bookof Acts, Paul served as an evangelist to the Greek and Roman citiesin the Mediterranean world.
The practice of buying, selling, and trading goods is wellattested in both Testaments. Listed among the items of trade in theBible are textiles (Ezek. 27:24), metals (1 Kings 9:28; Ezek.27:13; Rev. 18:12), spices (Jer. 6:20; Rev. 18:13), corn (1 Kings5:11; Ezek. 27:17), animals (1 Kings 10:29), and wine (2 Chron.2:15; Rev. 18:13).
OldTestament
Palestinerests in a strategic position between Egypt and Mesopotamia. Thus,major trade routes that predate the biblical writings are foundthroughout Palestine. That certain forms of commerce seem to justappear on the scene in the biblical narrative attests to thesignificance of commerce during the OT era. One such incidentinvolves a caravan of Ishmaelites traveling from Gilead to Egypt(Gen. 37:25). Although the narrative is primarily interested inshowing how Joseph ended up in Egypt, the reality that Ishmaelites(later called “Midianites” [Gen. 37:28]) travel at suchgreat lengths for goods attests to the far-reaching impact ofcommerce at that time.
Travelingby land.By biblical times, three major north-south highways crossedPalestine. On the coast was the international coastal highway,sometimes referred to as the Way of the Sea (Lat. Via Maris) (seeIsa. 9:1), although this is somewhat of a misnomer. This route beganin Egypt and continued through to Gaza, Aphek, Megiddo, Hazor, Dan,and Damascus. Mentioned three times in the Bible (Num. 20:17; 21:22;Deut. 2:27), the King’s Highway began in the Gulf of Aqaba atElath (northernmost point of the Red Sea) and ran north to Damascus.A major trade route in ancient times, the road eventually was linedwith fortresses and rebuilt by the Roman emperor Trajan during thesecond century AD. The third major road was interregional but notinternational. This central interregional route ran from Shechem inthe north to Beersheba in the south, making stops in Shiloh, Bethel,Ramah, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Hebron along the way.
Theindication that Solomon had “seven hundred wives of royal birthand three hundred concubines” (1 Kings 11:3) evidencesvarious lines of commerce, both regionally and internationally.Marriage, particularly for kings, was arranged often for strategicpurposes. One way to formalize an agreement of peace, safe passage,or commerce agreements was to offer a daughter in marriage. Solomon’swives from Egypt, Moab, Ammon, Edom, Sidon, and Hittite areas(1 Kings 11:1) probably served both political and economicfunctions.
Travelingby sea.Although travel and trade by water (rivers and sea) cannot be ruledout, particularly in Egypt, the most significant commercial endeavorsin the OT concern the main trade routes through Palestine. However,numerous examples of maritime commerce are evidenced in the OT. Amongthe most interesting examples of maritime commerce are the ships ofSolomon, which would return intermittently with “gold, silverand ivory, and apes and baboons” (1 Kings 10:22). Despitethe admonition given to the Israelite kings (Deut. 17:15–20),Solomon acquired horses and chariots from Egypt (1 Kings10:28–29) by way of Kue (cf. Cilicia in the southeast ofpresent-day Turkey). Thus, trade appeared to be international by bothland and sea (cf. Gen. 37:25–28; 1 Kings 10:15; Isa. 23:8;Ezek. 27).
Revelation.The centralized geographical orientation of Palestine ensured that ithad a unique role in the commercial trade of the ancient NearEast. Perhaps this is why God gave specific revelation to Israel thatapplied to commercial affairs. The exhortation to “use honestscales and honest weights” when conducting business would havedemonstrated the integrity of both Israel and Israel’s God(Lev. 19:35–36).
NewTestament
Theconquests of Alexander the Great catalyzed trade relationshipsbetween West and East (c. fourth century BC). Yet it would not beuntil the Roman consolidation of power in the western Mediterranean(Third Punic War, 149–146 BC) that commerce was greatlyimproved. The two-century period of peace, referred to as the PaxRomana (cf. Philo, Embassy 47; Plutarch, Mor. 317B), was one of theabiding legacies of the emperor Augustus (r. 27 BC–AD 14).Among the positive outcomes of Augustus’s rule were economicprosperity, improved communications, and stabilized government. Thegrowing network of Roman roads and strict regulation on the seasimproved the quality and conditions of travel between locations, thusimproving communications and commercial opportunity throughout theempire (cf. Pliny the Elder, Nat. 14.1.2).
Contributingto the development of commerce was the creation of a fully monetizedeconomy throughout the Roman Empire. Although bartering continued tofunction, coinage had come into heavy usage after and on account ofthe policies of Alexander the Great. Strabo even goes so far as tomention that the lack of the use of coinage was a characteristic ofbarbarism (Geogr. 7.5.5).
Merchantsinclude shippers, entrepreneurs, and their agents, who traveled aboutmaking contracts and supervising the shipment of goods. Although thetypical source of income for an aristocrat was agriculture, theenticement of potential profits of commerce led some to engage in themerchant trade or appoint their slaves to do so. Jesus seems toallude to the latter practice in Matthew’s Gospel when he tellsa parable of a master who goes on a long journey and expects hisservants to handle his affairs (Matt. 25:14–27). A slave mightbe entrusted with a message or a business transaction abroad. Thus,it would not have been uncommon to see a slave traveling and handlinghis master’s business. Perhaps this gives insight intoOnesimus, the slave whom Paul encounters, who belongs to Philemon(see Philem. 10–18).
Dueto slow travel times, most foods were not transported very far. Butthe high demand for grain grew the commerce industry from a generallylocalized phenomenon to an international operation. Aside from thewell-documented import/export of grain, items such as wine, driedfruits, spices, and other luxury items were shipped longer distances.Commerce was undertaken by both land and sea.
Travelingby land.Nothing like the massive infrastructure of modern nations existed inantiquity. Yet, by the time of the NT, Roman roads made shipping andland travel more efficient and possible than ever before. The extentof these road systems expanded from modern-day Scotland to theEuphrates and provided strategic value for the empire but alsoprofoundly revolutionized commerce and travel. Many of these roadsare still in use. Even with the improved conditions of the roadsystems, however, land commerce was slow and costly. Most commercialtraffic, therefore, was localized. Maritime commercial enterprise,however, allowed for quicker, more economical shipping.
Therewere two principal land trade routes in the Roman world. First, theAppian Way (Lat. Via Appia) ran south from Rome to Capua, crossingItaly and extending to Brundisium on the Adriatic coast. Stretches ofthis road were traversed by Paul and his companions as they went toRome (Acts 28:15–16). The second, the Egnatian Way (Lat. ViaEgnatia), begins in Dyrrachium and spans across Macedonia andeventually to Byzantium (Istanbul). A stretch of Paul’s secondand third missionary journeys would have used this path as hetraveled to Thessalonica (cf. Acts 17:1).
Tothe east, in Asia Minor (present-day Turkey), the well-traveledeast-west roadway was known as the Common Way. Anyone familiar withPaul’s missionary journeys will recognize some of the stopsalong the Common Way: Ephesus, Laodicea, Pisidian Antioch, Iconium,and Tarsus (to name a few).
Travelingby sea.The presence of maritime commerce is well documented in the NT.Virtually no travel industry existed in its own right; rather, travelfollowed the established trade routes. If one wished to travel bysea, one sought a cargo vessel heading to the appropriate locale.Thus, when the NT records sea travel, it is in the context ofcommerce ships (cf. Acts 27:38). Most ships stayed close to land andventured between ports (cf. 20:13–15; 21:1–8; 27:2),although if the prevailing western winds could be utilized, a largeship would take to the open sea.
Althoughcommerce was not an industry of the elite (cf. Cicero, Off.1.150–151; Homer, Od. 8.14ff.), the importance of maritimetrade cannot be overlooked. This industry provided a way toredistribute essential resources and goods throughout the Romanworld, potentially eliminating temporary shortages. Both Athens andRome depended highly upon imports of grain from Egypt to feed theirurban population and maintain armies. In fact, much of the largecommercial travel on the Mediterranean was undertaken to supply grainto Rome. The book of Acts mentions two such grain ships fromAlexandria (27:6, 38; 28:11).
Large-scalesea commerce could transport vast amounts of goods between locations.Acts mentions 276 persons traveling on a grain ship destined for Rome(27:37). Likewise, Josephus records his ill-fated journey to Rome ona ship carrying 600 passengers (Life 15). This number of passengersprovides some insight into the size of these sea vessels and theamount of cargo that could be carried. It is thought that anAlexandrian commerce ship could be up to two hundred feet long.
Therewere two principal maritime trade routes in the Roman world. First,the sea route from Puteoli (southeast of Rome) to Alexandria was usedby merchant ships that took advantage of the prevailing winds on theMediterranean as they traveled to Egypt for grain. This passage, ofnearly one thousand nautical miles, could be made in less than twoweeks. Conversely, the journey back could take up to three months andfollowed the Palestinian coast north, passing several significantports: Lydda, Joppa, Caesarea, Ptolemais, Tyre, Sidon, and Antioch.
AlthoughRoman peace ushered in an era of safer travel by land and by sea,maritime transit remained quite dangerous. Paul is recorded to haveundergone four shipwrecks (see Acts 27:39–44; 2 Cor.11:25–26). Josephus records his own journey to Rome “througha great number of hazards, by sea” (Life 14). Weather patternsand sea conditions could change quickly, and it was generallyacknowledged that certain times of the year were better for traveling(Cod. theod. 13.9.3.3; Tacitus, Hist. 4.81; Acts 27:9–12; cf.2 Tim. 4:13). Nevertheless, the Roman imperium offered generousincentives to merchants who risked the season and brought supplies ofgrain to Rome from Egypt (Suetonius, Claud. 18–19; Cassius Dio,Hist. 60.11). Such a ship provided the context for the apostle Paul’sjourney to Rome, which ended in shipwreck and the loss of the grainproduct, but remarkably without any loss of life (see Acts 27:13–44).
Tradeassociations.Trade associations of various kinds existed in the ancient world.Such a group consisted of merchants or artisans who shared a commontrade. These groups typically exerted no political, social, oreconomic influence. Rather, they existed to protect the merchants andartisans and their economic interests. Such was the case when theartisans of Ephesus incited a riot over the actions of Paul and hiscompanions when they preached against the idolatry of Artemis worship(Acts 19:26). The statement that “all Asia and the world”worship Artemis (19:27) certainly is hyperbolic; yet thepervasiveness of the Artemis cult is recorded in other sources(Pausanias, Descr. 4.31.8; Strabo, Geogr. 4.1.5) and suggests thatthe artisans who fashioned these silver shrines made good money inthe local economy.
Likewise,the bronze trade from Corinth is well documented in antiquity (e.g.,Vitruvius, De arch. 8.41; Pliny the Elder, Nat. 34.6). Bronzewas used to produce various goods: bowls, jewelry, andsound-enhancing vessels for the theater at Corinth. The latter may bewhat Paul alludes to when he writes of a “resounding gong”(1 Cor. 13:1). The recognition of the beauty and value ofCorinthian bronze resulted in it being sought after by other markets.Pliny the Elder reports, “There has been a wonderful maniaamong many people for possessing this metal” (Nat. 34.6).Located on the Greek Peloponnesus, Corinth was in a strategicposition to distribute its goods throughout the Roman Empire. It wasto this port city that Paul came and spent significant time plantinga church (Acts 18:1, 18).
The biblical writers proclaim that only one God exists, yetthey also refer to three persons as “God.” The Father,the Son, and the Holy Spirit are all God. Furthermore, these threepersons relate to one another as self-conscious individuals. Jesusprays to the Father (John 17). The Father speaks from heavenconcerning the Son (Matt. 3:17; Luke 3:22). Jesus vows to send theSpirit as “Advocate” after his ascension, and he will dowhat Jesus himself did while he was among us (John 16:7–8). Thechallenge of Christian theology, therefore, is to formulate adoctrine of God that captures all these elements, each of whichsurfaces in both Testaments.
OldTestament
Inthe OT, evidence for the Trinity appears mostly at the implicitlevel. Yahweh is called “Father” in Isaiah (63:16; 64:8),Jeremiah (3:4, 19; 31:9), and Malachi (2:10). Isaiah declares, “Butyou are our Father, though Abraham does not know us or Israelacknowledge us; you, Lord, are our Father, our Redeemer from of oldis your name” (Isa. 63:16). Yahweh identifies himself as“Father” implicitly when he claims Israel as his “son”(Hos. 11:1), and the same principle applies to Ps. 2:7, where Goddeclares to his anointed, “You are my son; today I have becomeyour father.” These cases do not compare in numbers with the NTevidence, but a person thought of as “God the Father”certainly appears in the OT.
Messianictexts of the OT introduce us to God the Son. In Isa. 9:6 a “childis born” who will be called “Wonderful Counselor, MightyGod, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.” The day of“Immanuel,” or “God with us,” is foreshadowedin Isa. 7:14 (cf. Matt. 1:22), while Isa. 40:3–5 anticipatesthe appearance of the Lord “in the wilderness” (cf. Matt.3:3). Daniel sees “one like a son of man, coming with theclouds of heaven” being given “authority, glory andsovereign power” (Dan. 7:13–14). In Ps. 110:1 Yahweh saysto David’s “Lord,” “Sit at my right handuntil I make your enemies a footstool for your feet.”
Similarly,the OT seems to distinguish the Spirit of God from Yahweh whileimplying the Spirit’s own personality. Genesis 1:2 makes thatcase, as does Exod. 31:3, where Yahweh fills Bezalel with the “Spiritof God” (cf. Exod. 35:31; Num. 11:29). In 1Sam. 16:14 acontrast is made between the “Spirit of the Lord” thatleaves Saul and an “evil spirit from the Lord” thattorments him; also we find a repentant David pleading that God wouldnot take away his “Holy Spirit” (Ps. 51:11). The Spiritcan be put on persons by God, with the result that they prophesy(Isa. 61:1; Joel 2:28–29) and do what pleases him (Ezek.36:26–27). In the OT, therefore, we see two persons (the Sonand the Holy Spirit) who are both God and also distinguishable fromone to whom they answer and by whom they are sent.
NewTestament
TheNT contains abundant evidence for “God the Father,” oftenbecause of Jesus’ teaching. The “Father” appearsseveral times in the Sermon on the Mount (e.g., Matt. 5:16; 6:6–9,14, 18, 26, 32; 7:11). Matthew 7:21 stands out because of Jesus’reference to “my Father who is in heaven,” by which heidentifies himself as the Son (see also Matt. 15:13; 16:17; 18:10;and Luke 24:49). Paul’s greetings normally come from God theFather and the Lord Jesus Christ, as seen in Rom. 1:7: “Graceand peace to you from God our Father and from the Lord Jesus Christ”(also 1Cor. 1:3; 2Cor. 1:2; Gal. 1:1–3; 1Tim.1:2; 2Tim. 1:2). Paul introduces the Father and the Son in1Cor. 8:6: “For us there is but one God, the Father, fromwhom all things came and for whom we live; and there is but one Lord,Jesus Christ, through whom all things came and through whom we live”(see also 1Cor. 15:24; 2Cor. 11:31; Eph. 1:3; Phil.2:22). Other significant texts include Heb. 1:5; 1Pet. 1:2–3;in the latter, the scattered believers are those “who have beenchosen according to the foreknowledge of God the Father, through thesanctifying work of the Spirit, to be obedient to Jesus Christ andsprinkled with his blood.... Praise be to the Godand Father of our Lord Jesus Christ!” The NT evidence for “Godthe Father” is clear.
Biblicaltexts that point to the deity of Christ supply evidence for thesecond claim: the Son is God. Some of the texts listed above say asmuch, but one can take this case further. In context, John’sprologue refers to Jesus as the “Word” and proclaims thathe was “with God” and “was God” (John 1:1).Jesus also relates to the Father in ways that imply his own deity, ashe declares in John 10:30, “I and the Father are one.”After significant doubting, Thomas confesses the deity of Christ inJohn 20:28: “My Lord and my God!” NT passages thatidentify Jesus as the “Son of God” point to his deity, asPeter does in Matt. 16:16: “You are the Messiah, the Son of theliving God.” Even demons identify Jesus as the Son. They callout, “What do you want with us, Son of God? ...Have you come here to torture us before the appointed time?”(Matt. 8:29; cf. Mark 5:7). The so-called Christ Hymn of Phil. 2:6–11puts Jesus on the level with God, saying that he did not consider“equality with God something to be used to his own advantage.”The author of Hebrews declares that Jesus is “the radiance ofGod’s glory and the exact representation of his being”(1:3). Colossians 1:15–16 says that Jesus is the “imageof the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation” and theone by whom “all things were created,” and Col. 1:19states that “God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell inhim.” According to Titus 2:13, Jesus is “our great Godand Savior.” The entire sequence of Rev. 4–5 highlightsthe deity of Christ, culminating in the praise “To him who sitson the throne and to the Lamb be praise and honor and glory andpower, for ever and ever!” as both the Enthroned One and theLamb are worshiped as God (5:13–14).
TheNT writers underscore both the deity and the distinctive personalityof the Holy Spirit. Jesus is conceived in Mary’s womb by theSpirit’s power (Matt. 1:18–20), and when Jesus isbaptized, the Spirit descends upon him as a dove (Matt. 3:16; Mark1:10). Jesus drives out demons by the Spirit, and one dare not speakagainst the Spirit when he does so (Matt. 12:28–32). Luke’sGospel puts added emphasis on the ministry of the Spirit, as we alsosee in Acts. He empowers various people to praise and prophesy (Luke1:41, 67) and to be witnesses for Christ (Acts 1:8; 2:4, 17–18,38). Sinners can lie to the Holy Spirit (Acts 5:3, 9), and the HolySpirit bears witness along with the apostles to the risen Christ(5:32). In John’s Gospel, the Spirit becomes the counselor andteacher of the disciples, reminding them of their Lord’sinstructions (John 14:26; 16:13). The Spirit brings assurance ofsonship (Rom. 8:16) and helps disciples when they pray (8:26). Thisperson even knows the very thoughts of God (1Cor. 2:11).Accordingly, the Great Commission requires baptism in the name of theFather, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (Matt. 28:19). All three membersof the Trinity have a part in the advancement of the kingdom, theSpirit no less than the Father and the Son.
Relationshipsbetween Father, Son, and Spirit
Theevidence considered thus far demonstrates that three persons arecalled “God” in Scripture: the Father, the Son, and theHoly Spirit. But the Scriptures also point to a chain of command intheir relationship to one another. The Son obeys the Father, and theSpirit proceeds from the Father and the Son to apply the work of thecross to the church. This “functional subordination” ofthe Son to the Father, some might argue, would follow simply from theanalogy chosen by God to reveal himself to us. The “Son”would obey his “Father,” not vice versa, though theyshare a common dignity as God, just as a human father and son share acommon humanity. But the NT writers expressly tell us that theyrelate to each other in this way. In Matt. 11:27 (cf. Luke 10:22)Jesus announces, “All things have been committed to me by myFather” (cf. John 3:35; 5:22). The latter transfers authorityto the former as his subordinate. The Father even (for a season)knows more than the Son regarding the last days: “About thatday or hour no one knows, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son,but only the Father” (Matt. 24:36), though he also dignifiesthe Son: “For the Father loves the Son and shows him all hedoes” (John 5:20). The Son’s commitment to please hisheavenly Father is a prominent theme of the NT, as Jesus declares inJohn 5:19: “The Son can do nothing by himself; he can do onlywhat he sees his Father doing, because whatever the Father does theSon also does.” No text brings out this dependence of the Sonupon the Father more clearly than Heb. 5:7–8, where the Son issaid to have “offered up prayers and petitions with ferventcries and tears to the one who could save him from death, and he washeard because of his reverent submission. Son though he was, helearned obedience from what he suffered.” It is debated bytheologians whether this functional subordination relates only to theperiod of the Son’s earthly ministry, or whether it is aneternal subordination.
TheSpirit, though equal in personality and dignity with the Father andthe Son, proceeds from them to apply the work of the cross andempower the church for ministry. In John 14:26 Jesus says, “TheAdvocate, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, willteach you all things and will remind you of everything I have said toyou.” In John 15:26 Jesus announces that he also sends theSpirit out: “When the Advocate comes, whom I will send to youfrom the Father—the Spirit of truth who goes out from theFather—he will testify about me.” The Spirit only conveyswhat he has received: “He will not speak on his own; he willspeak only what he hears, and he will tell you what is yet to come”(John 16:13). The same “chain of command” appears in John16:15, where Jesus says, “All that belongs to the Father ismine. That is why I said the Spirit will receive from me what he willmake known to you.”
TrinitarianHeresies
TheFather, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are God, while beingdistinguishable persons. The Son obeys the Father; and these twopersons of the Trinity send out the Holy Spirit to implement ourdeliverance from sin. A defensible explanation of the Trinity willrespect all these dynamics, taking special care not to illustratethem with misleading images or simply lapse into various forms ofpolytheism. One of the earliest heresies of the church came fromMarcion, a second-century theologian who distinguished the Father ofJesus from the supposedly vindictive God of the OT, which leaves uswith more than one God. Later came the heresies of modalism andsubordinationism (or Arianism). Modalists claimed that the persons ofthe Trinity are no more than guises worn by the one person of God.One minute God is the Father, the next he is the Son or the HolySpirit. Subordinationists such as Arius (died AD 336) went beyond thefunctionality of the NT’s chain of command, arguing that theSon and the Holy Spirit are not themselves God but are essentiallysubordinate to him. Jehovah’s Witnesses have fallen into thislatter error, suggesting that Jesus is “a god” but notthe Creator God.
Theseearly heresies pressed the church to refine its understanding of theTrinity. In his response to Marcion’s error, Tertullian coinedprecise language to describe the persons of the Godhead, so thatGod’s “threeness” and “oneness” arepreserved. He used the Latin term trinitas to describe the ChristianGod and argued that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit sharethe same “substance.” The Son (also, then, the HolySpirit) is not simply of “like substance” (Gk.hom*oiousios) with God the Father, but rather is “consubstantial”(Gk. hom*oousios) with him: the Son is God, and so is the Holy Spirit.The Nicene Creed of AD 325 incorporated this explanation and, in sodoing, also set aside the idea that either the Son or the Holy Spiritwas created by God, as the Arian heresy requires. Nicaea alsorejected adoptionism, which regards Jesus as a man whom God promotedby endowing him with supernatural powers.
Eachof these heresies—plus, say, the strict monotheism ofIslam—attempts to relieve the tension seen among the claimsthat constitute the Trinity; however, orthodox Christians willremember that tensions and paradoxes are not automaticcontradictions. No philosopher or theologian has ever expresslydemonstrated that the Trinity entails logical nonsense, andChristianity’s detractors carry the burden of proof in thiscase. It is one thing to allege that an idea is contradictory, andquite another thing to show with an argument that it is so. On thepositive side, the Trinity must remain a central doctrine of thechurch because it affects all the others, especially the entire workof redemption. If God is not triune, then Jesus is not God; and if heis not God, then he cannot save us, nor can we worship him as ourLord. The sacrifice that he offers for our sin would not, in thatcase, be supremely valuable. Consider also the application to us ofwhat Christ has done. If the Holy Spirit is not God, then he cannotspeak for God as one who knows perfectly his thoughts and gives usthe word of God, our Bible. Scripture indicates that God is triune,and sinners need him to be so.
AncientNear East
Theancient Near East was a male-dominated culture in which, therefore,women were marginalized and treated more or less as property. Note,for example, Boaz’s question “Who does that young womanbelong to?” (Ruth 2:5). Women, of course, produce children, andthis power was prized. Women were also fit to engage in variousmundane tasks, but they were not trained for war or educated forservice in the royal court. Their role in society was subordinate andsecondary.
Inthe Epic of Gilgamesh, the wild and powerful Enkidu met a “wisewoman” who seduced him. Thereafter, Enkidu was tamed andweakened. She made a civilized man of him. In the Ugaritic legend ofDanil, Danil was unhappy because he had no sons. With the blessing ofthe gods, he married Hurriya, and had sons and daughters. Thus, sonsfulfilled Danil as much as they fulfilled the woman.
Butthe power to reproduce, which resides in the woman’s womb, alsowas mysterious and seemed to belong in the same category as otherforces of nature, such as the rebirth of life in the spring followingsterile winter. Thus, the ancient world was filled with goddesses ofgreat power. These goddesses at times also took on masculinecharacteristics, such as displaying great prowess in war; this isespecially true of Anat of Canaanite mythology.
ThroughoutIsrael’s sojourn in the Promised Land, there was anundercurrent of Canaanite-style goddess worship. In the period of thejudges, the Israelites worshiped the goddess Asherah (Judg. 6:25).Led astray by his wives, Solomon also worshiped the goddess (1Kings11:1–8). The “fertility cult” included ritual sexin places of worship. This eventually took place in the temple ofYahweh. Much of this seems to have been hom*osexual sex (2Kings23:7).
Creationof Woman
Inthe Bible, woman is first encountered along with man in Gen. 1:26–28.God created “man” in the plural, male and female, andcommanded them to reproduce and to fill the earth and subdue it.Being created male and female is set in parallel to being created inthe image of God. In the ancient Near East, perhaps the king would bethought of as the image of God. But in Genesis, not only is the firstman the image of God, but the first woman participates in the imageas well. This is all but unthinkable in the ancient world, and itsuggests an unparalleled dignity and worth in womankind.
Genesisrecords that the human race fell through the instrumentality of aman, a woman, and the serpent. The serpent approached the woman, notthe man. The woman was convinced by the serpent and ate the forbiddenfruit. She gave some to her husband, who also ate it without saying aword. Thus, the woman can be blamed in part for the fall of the race.Adam was condemned because he “listened to [his] wife”(Gen. 3:17). Her judgment, for heeding the serpent, was pain inchildbirth and a desire for her husband, who would rule over her(Gen. 3:16). The exact parameters of this judgment are unclear, butit appears that her desire will be for his position of leadership andwill be perpetually frustrated.
Throughoutthe remainder of Genesis, this judgment does not seem to unfold asexpected. Instead, men are shown to desire women. Jacob was willingto work seven years to get the beautiful Rachel as his wife, and whenhe was fooled into marrying her sister, Leah, he was willing to workanother seven years for her (Gen. 29:16–30). And women exploitmen and their desire in order to get what they want, in effectmastering them. Lot’s daughters contrived to get what theywanted from him (19:30–38), and Tamar manipulated Judah’sdesire (38:13–26).
Reproduction
Oftenin the Bible, women are motivated by their desire to have children.Rachel demanded of Jacob, “Give me children, or I’lldie!” (Gen. 30:1). She saw herself in competition with hersister, Leah, in this respect (30:8). The “fruit of the womb”is a reward, and like arrows, the blessed man’s quiver is fullof them (Ps. 127:1–5). Note also the beatitude of Ps. 128:3:“Your wife will be like a fruitful vine within your house; yourchildren will be like olive shoots around your table.”
InGenesis, the reproductive capability of slave girls is at thedisposal of their owners. Thus, Rachel and Leah’s maidservantsbecame surrogate mothers for a number of their sons (Gen. 30:3–10).Sarah also became frustrated at her inability to conceive, so shegave Hagar to Abraham. The result was great familial turmoil, finallyresulting in the banishment of both Hagar and Ishmael, whom she boreto Abraham.
Inthe beginning, God joined one man and one woman together as husbandand wife. But soon this idea was corrupted, and Lamech, a man fromCain’s lineage, is credited with the first polygamous marriage(Gen. 4:19). Although the patriarchs (such as Jacob) did have morethan one wife, the household discontent and strife are what ishighlighted in those stories, such as with Hagar. In the NT, an elderis to be, literally, a “one-woman man” (1Tim. 3:2;ESV, KJV: “the husband of onewife”),meaningmonogamous.
Inthe Bible, women are described as having a number of different sexualrelationships with men. There were wives, who enjoyed the closestrelationship and had the greatest privileges. There were concubines,who were not wives but were bound to a single man. The greatestdeviation from the norm of creation was the institution of the harem,whereby a king took to himself any number of consorts. The law ofMoses restricted this practice (Deut. 17:17).
Legislation
TheTorah contains significant legislation regarding women. The daughtersof Zelophehad argued that their father died without sons, so inCanaan they were disinherited. God agreed and decreed that in Israeldaughters would inherit land in the absence of sons. Only if therewere no children at all would the land pass to other kin (Num.27:1–11).
Whena man made a vow, he must fulfill it, but a young woman’s vowwas subject to her father. If he remained silent, the vow stood, butif he expressed disapproval, then she was freed from it. If she wasmarried, her husband governed her vows, but if she was divorced, thenthere was no responsible male over her, and her vow was treated as aman’s (Num. 30:1–16).
Sexualintercourse was also regulated in the law of Moses, insofar as theact rendered both parties ritually impure (Lev. 15:18). Both mustbathe and were unclean until evening. A woman’s menstrualdischarge also made her unclean for a week. Everything she sat or layupon was unclean, as was anyone who touched these things. She mustwash and offer sacrifice to become clean again (15:18–31).
Ifa man discovered on his wedding night that his bride was not avirgin, he could accuse her publicly. If her parents providedevidence that she had in fact been a virgin, then the man wasseverely punished for lying and not allowed to divorce her(otherwise, it was simply a matter of writing a letter to divorce her[Deut. 24:1]). If her virginity could not be proved, she was to beput to death by stoning (Deut. 22:13–21).
Inthe case of a rape of a betrothed virgin, if it occurred in the city,both the rapist and the victim were stoned, since apparently she hadfailed to cry out for help and thus, the law assumed, consented tosexual intercourse. If she was raped in the countryside, only the manwas killed. But if he raped a woman who was not spoken for, hispunishment was that he must marry her without possibility of divorce(Deut. 22:23–29).
Numbers5:11–31 treats cases where a husband was suspicious that hiswife had been unfaithful—that is, a matter of covenantaljealousy. The unprovable was left to God to punish.
TheStatus of Women
Inthe Bible, women sometimes are afforded dignity beyond what isexpected in an ancient Near Eastern provenance. Hagar is the onlywoman in all ancient Near Eastern literature who gave a name to adeity (Gen. 16:13). In Judg. 4:4, Deborah “judged” Israel(despite the NIV’s “leading,” the underlying Hebrewverb indicates “judging,” as in the NRSV). Even as judge,however, she did not lead the army against the enemy general Sisera;Barak did so. But Barak was unwilling to undertake this missionunless Deborah went with him (4:8). Thus, God ensured that theprestige of killing Sisera went to a woman, Jael (4:9, 21). Anotherprominent woman was Huldah, to whom the priests turned for guidancewhen the law was rediscovered (2Kings 22:14).
Manybiblical stories feature heroines. Mighty Pharaoh was undermined bytwo midwives in his attempt to destroy Israel (Exod. 1:15–21).Ruth the Moabite woman gave her name to the book that recounts hertrek from Moab to Israel, including her famous oath of loyalty (Ruth1:16–17). Esther too was a courageous woman whose book bearsher name. Heroines are especially prominent in the Gospels, and thewomen there have the distinction of being the first to witness therisen Lord. Luke’s birth narrative is largely organized aroundMary. Priscilla (with her husband) taught and helped to shape theearly church (Acts 18:26). Paul lists many women in Rom. 16, callingthem “deaconess,” “fellow worker,” andpossibly even “apostle.”
Scripturealso at times portrays various women as being temptations to men. Evehanded the fruit to Adam (Gen. 3:6). In the wilderness Israelworshiped Moabite gods in conjunction with sexual activity (Num.25:1–9). Later, Israelites intermarried with Canaanite women,directly leading to worship of their idols (Judg. 3:6). Bathsheba wasa temptation to David, and this began a series of events that marredhis career as a man after God’s own heart. Solomon loved manyforeign women, who turned him to worship their gods. After the exile,the Israelites were admonished by Nehemiah to put away their foreignwives lest history repeat itself (Neh. 13:26).
Songof Songs
Songof Songs, while acknowledging the great power of sexuality to movepeople to act against their own best interests, nevertheless portrayslove in a very positive light. The love between a man and a woman isshown in Song of Songs to be not primarily about generating children.Offspring are not at issue in the Bible’s great love song.Rather, relations between man and wife rest on a deeper foundation,that of sexual enjoyment and desire. In the words of Hannah’shusband, Elkanah, “Don’t I mean more to you than tensons?” (1Sam. 1:8).
InGen. 3:16, God pronounces judgment on the woman that her “desire”will be for her husband, but that he will master her. The Hebrew wordfor “desire” occurs only once outside Genesis, in Song7:10, where the woman says that her lover’s “desire”is for her. This seems to be a direct reference to Gen. 3:16. Thus,in Song of Songs the judgment on the woman is rolled back andreversed in love. In Song of Songs it is the king who is enthralledin love and thus subdued (7:5). He would not have it any other way!
Thus,sexuality is celebrated in Song of Songs. What proves to be such agrave temptation to men elsewhere is shown to be an essential part ofGod’s good creation, albeit a potent and dangerous facet oflife. Women do not exist simply to produce children; they partner andrevel with their lovers, together enjoying that particular part ofGod’s creation that requires two sexes to explore.
Imagery
Womenand marriage are used in the Bible as images for spiritual things.Paul writes that marital love mirrors the church’s relationshipwith Christ (Eph. 5:32–33). A man should love his wife asChrist loved the church. Revelation portrays the climax to humanhistory in the figure of two women: the bride of Christ, adorned withrighteous deeds for her husband (19:7–8), and the whor*Babylon, drunk on the blood of the saints (17:5–6). Theconsummation of the age is when one is judged and the other entersher eternal marital bliss.
Thebook of Proverbs also separates humankind into two groups, symbolizedby two women. Along the path of life, the youth hears the voices ofWoman Folly (9:13–18) and of Woman Wisdom (1:20–33)calling out to him. Folly is incarnated in the flesh-and-bloodtemptation of the immoral woman (7:6–27), whereas Woman Wisdomhas her counterpart at the end of the book in the detaileddescription of the woman of virtue (31:10–31). There, the womanwho fears God is set as a prize far above earthly wealth—thehighest blessing of the wise.
Pauluses two women from sacred history to help explain his gospel of lawversus grace. Hagar the slave woman represents the Mosaic covenantgiven at Sinai, and the earthly Jerusalem—that is, a mind-setof slavery that futilely attempts to earn God’s favor by worksof the law. Sarah was the free woman, and her son was the promisedson, who represents the heavenly Jerusalem, the new covenant, andfreedom from the requirements of the law (Gal. 4:21–31). Again,two women symbolize two paths and two peoples—one being slaves,the other being God’s free people.
ChurchGovernment
Throughoutmost of Christian history, women’s roles in the church havebeen comparable to their role in the general culture. Womenparticipated little in the institutional life of society, and thechurch was no different. A number of Bible texts can be used insupport of women’s marginalization as leaders. For example, inthe OT, the cult was managed by the priestly caste, and no woman wasever a priest of Yahweh. In the NT, the local churches were overseenby a company of elders. Elders are described by Paul as men, thehusband of one wife, who were apt to teach and who managed their ownfamilies well (1Tim. 3:1–7). Immediately before thisdescription, Paul notes that women were not to teach or haveauthority over men (1Tim. 2:9–15). Women were the “weakerpartner” (1Pet. 3:7). Thus, women’s subordinaterole throughout most of church history has some biblicaljustification.
However,as women participate more and more in the institutional life ofsociety, the normative value of the aforementioned texts has beenquestioned, and other texts have been put forward to provide analternative biblical conception of women’s roles in the church.Perhaps 1Tim. 2:12 is only against teaching a specific heresy,and the Greek verb translated “to assume authority over”(authenteō)may refer to a specific kind of authoritarian or domineeringbehavior. As noted above, in Rom. 16 Paul considers women to beleaders in the church. Since it is true that in Christ there is nomale or female (Gal. 3:28), how far does this extend? Today’schallenge for churches is to decide these matters in light of thewhole of Scripture rather than a few proof texts.
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1. Final Exam
Illustration
King Duncan
There’s a difference between intelligence and wisdom, as illustrated by the old story of the favorite course at the University. The favorite course? A survey of the New Testament. It was a favorite because there was no homework, no reading, and no tests before the final. And on the final, for 25 years, the same professor had always presented the same question: “Describe the Missionary Journeys of Paul.”
A young man by the name of “Meathead,” a star on the school’s football team, took the course. And a tutor helped him prepare, all semester long, for the final exam. When the day of the test came, Meathead was ready. He knew everything about every journey Paul ever took. He knew about Philippi and Thessalonica, Rome and Tyre. He knew about Timothy and Barnabas and Luke. He was ready.
But when the final exam was passed out, students all over that great auditorium were stunned to see a new question. For the first time in a quarter-century, the professor decided to ask a different question. Instead of a question about Paul’s missionary journeys, there was this question: “Critique the Sermon on the Mount that was preached by Jesus.”
The shock was felt across the room. And a young man got up, took his blue book - a little book that was designed to hold his essay - and threw it down on the professor’s desk. It was empty. He didn’t know how to answer the question. And one by one, all of the students left, none of them able to answer the question . . . except for Meathead.
Meathead opened his blue book and began to write. He wrote and he wrote and he wrote. The professor’s assistant came back an hour later, and Meathead was still writing. Two hours later, and Meathead was going at it. For a full three hours, Meathead filled up his blue book.
That afternoon, the professor had two stacks of blue books. On his right, a tall stack of empty blue books, all with the grade of F. On his left, one, single blue book, with a big, bold A+ right on top. It was Meathead’s.
“What in the world did you write about?” Asked a classmate. “Read it,” said Meathead. And on the first page was the opening sentence. “Who am I to criticize the Sermon on the Mount? Instead, let me tell you about the missionary journeys of Paul.”
Meathead had discovered wisdom.
2. The Apollo Extension
Illustration
Clyde Haberman and Albin Krebs
John L. Swigert, Jr., the Apollo 13 astronaut who went to the moon in 1970, recalls how his job almost interfered with filing his federal income-tax forms:
"On the second day of Apollo 13, April 12, I asked Mission Control to begin work to get me an extension of the filing date for my income tax. Since I had been a last-minute substitution on the Apollo 13 flight, things had moved so fast that I didn't have a chance to file my return."
The IRS didn't have to make a special ruling to grant Swigert a two-month extension because of his I'm-on-my-way-to-the-moon excuse, though. There was already a regulation that provided an automatic extension for anyone out of the country.
3. A Father To Many
Illustration
Brett Blair
According to the Annie E. Casey Foundation's website, National Kids Count, approximately 35 percent of children under 18 live in a single-parent home as of 2019. As many as 25-percent of children in the U.S. live in households with a mother alone. That is over18 million childrenwho do not live with a father figure.
Perhaps the most relevant missionary challenge for our society was penned by the Apostle Paul in his letter to the Corinthians: Even though you have ten thousand guardians in Christ, you do not have many fathers, for in Christ Jesus I became your father. (I Cor. 4:15 NIV) Paul knew that these people didn't need another teacher, their needs were much deeper, they needed a father. One can't be a father to very many, but Paul knew that God was calling him to be a father to some people in Corinth.
4. In the Know
Illustration
Michael Horton
One of the earliest and most potent threats to early Christianity came from the heretical group known as the Gnostics. Blending elements of Christianity, Greek philosophy, and oriental mysticism, the Gnostics denied the orthodox view of God, man, and the world, and Christ. The apostle John included them in the camp of the Antichrist.
The Gnostics were so called because of their view of revelation. The word gnosis is the Greek word for "knowledge." In many cases the Gnostic heretics did not make a frontal assault against the apostles or against the apostolic teaching of Scripture. In fact, many of them insisted that they were genuine, Bible-believing Christians. It wasn't that they rejected the Bible; they just claimed an additional source of knowledge or insight that was superior to or at least beyond the knowledge of Scripture. The "Gnostikoi" were "those in the know." Their knowledge was not derived from intellectual comprehension of the Scripture or by empirical research, but was mystical, direct, and immediate. God "revealed" private, intuitive insights to them that carried nothing less than divine authority.
Here is a typical Gnostic statement: "We cannot communicate with God mentally, for He is a Spirit. But we can reach Him with our Spirit, and it is through our Spirit that we come to know God….This is one reason God put teachers (those who are really called to teach) in the church to renew our minds. Many times those who teach do so with only a natural knowledge that they have gained from the Bible and other sources. But I am referring here to one of the ministry gifts. Those who are called and anointed by the Spirit to teach. God has given us His Word, and we can feed upon that Word. This will renew our minds. But He also puts teachers in the church to renew our minds and to bring us the revelation of the knowledge of God's Word." (Kenneth E. Hagin, Man on Three Dimensions (Tulsa, Okla.: Faith Library, 1985), 1:8,13.)
Notice that this quotation does not include a direct assault on the Bible. The Bible is recognized as God's word. But in order to understand the Bible we need something beyond our natural mental ability. We need the Spirit-anointed teachers to "bring us the revelation of the knowledge of God's Word." This is a typically Gnostic statement, but the quote is not from Valentinus or any of the other early Gnostics. It is from the pen of a modern missionary of Gnosticism, Kenneth E. Hagin. It is from Hagin's Man on Three Dimensions. Hagin's theology echoes the tripartite epistemology of early Gnosticism (man as having three separate entities: body, soul, and spirit).
Robert Tilton also claims a direct pipeline to divine revelation: "God showed me a vision that almost took my breath away. I was sucked into the Spirit . . ., caught away . . . and I found myself standing in the very presence of Almighty God. It just echoed into my being. And he said these words to me. . . exactly these words . . ."Many of my ministers pray for my people, but I want you to pray the Prayer of Agreement with them" . . . I have never seen the presence of God so powerful. This same anointing flooded my Spirit-man . . . It's inside of me now, and I have supernatural faith to agree with you. From that day forth, as I have been faithful to that heavenly vision, I've seen every kind of miracle imaginable happen when I pray the Prayer of Agreement with God's people." (Robert Tilton, newsletter from Robert Tilton Ministries, Word of Faith World Outreach Center, Box 819000, Dallas, TX75381.
It seems that in Robert Tilton the church is blessed with a twentieth-century apostle whose visions of revelation exceed that of the apostle John and whose miracle powers surpass that of the apostle Paul. If we are to believe Tilton's astonishing claims, there is no reason we should not include his writings in the next edition of the New Testament.
Paul Crouch of the Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN), has revelatory dreams and has warmly embraced the neo-Gnostic dogma. His network has become a prime distribution center for the growing movement. Kenneth Copeland also receives phrases from God in "his spirit."
5. Rooted in the Scripture
Illustration
Edward F. Markquart
Many of the values of Western civilization are rooted in Jesus and the Scriptures. Where did our concept of democracy come from? Most people say off the top of their heads, that it came from Greece and the Greek senate. Yes, but not totally. Where did our concept of democracy originate? From the Magna Carta. It came from the Magna Carta and England in the year 1215. Who was one of the primary authors of the original Magna Carta? Stephen Langdon. Who was Stephen Langdon? The Archbishop of Canterbury. Archbishop Stephen Langdon was one of the principal authors of the Magna Carta and he had his roots in the Bible, his roots in the Word, his roots in the Book of Galatians and his roots in the freedom described in the Book of Galatians. The book of Galatians is about freedom, Christian freedom which has implications for political freedom. "For freedom Christ has set us free."
Another question: Where did our Constitution come from? We all know: Thomas Jefferson. Where did he get his ideas? The French Enlightenment. Where did the French Enlightenment get its ideas? The Renaissance. Where did the Renaissance get its ideas? The Reformation. Where did the Reformation get its ideas? From the Bible.
I would like to suggest to you that for many people the ideals of democracy can be traced back through history to the Scriptures themselves.
Originally, the hospitals in America were primarily Christian hospitals. The colleges in America were originally Christian colleges. The freedom movement in America for blacks had its origin in the Scriptures.
The very values of our democracy are rooted in the Scriptures. Who would have guessed that these American ideas and ideals would have started as a small seed so many centuries ago?
6. Who Is a Missionary?
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
For a helpful look at what or who a missionary is or should be, I recommend A Hitchhiker's Guide to Missions by Ada Lum (InterVarsity Press, 1984). Lum gives some helpful definitions and analysis of just what the missionary enterprise is all about. "A missionary is a prepared disciple whom God sends into the world with His resources to make disciples for His kingdom." She suggests six biblical images:
1. A Witness—Acts 1:8; Isaiah 43:10-12
2. An Evangelist—Luke 2:10-11; Acts 11:19-21
3. A Pioneer—Hebrews 12:2; Acts 20:22-24
4. A Herald—1 Timothy 2:7; 2 Timothy 1:11, 4:2
5. An Ambassador—2 Corinthians 5:20; Ephesians 6: 19-20
6. A Servant—1 Corinthians 4:1; 2 Timothy 2:24
Lum points out similarities between Jesus and Paul in Preparation and in Ministry.
Similar Preparation: They had a deep sense of commission, they were well trained by life, they were full of the Spirit and they each had the heart of a servant.
Similar Ministry: Their message was reconciliation to God, they had a worldwide vision, they had a strategy, they focused on basic ministries, they trained disciple makers to carry on the work, they were men of perseverance, they were part of a team, they were men of compassion, and they were men of passion.
7. JOYS OF DISCIPLESHIP
Illustration
John H. Krahn
Coming home late one rainy evening, I was short on patience and a bit uptight. It was the pressures of ministry with too much to do and too little time to do it. That evening, I had planned to write a sermon on the joys of discipleship! As I began, I realized I needed a better frame of mind ... more joy in my own discipleship.
As I reflected on the topic, I was reminded that joy is neither something to be tied into weather, nor tied into a work schedule. There is no such thing as more joy-less work, more work-less joy. Christian joy should not be affected by wages: large raise - great joy, no raise - no joy. Joy in discipleship is something that transcends the ups and downs of living. It must be bigger than the shifting sands of existence.
Turning to the Bible, we see what it has to say about joy and its source. It says that there is fullness of joy in the presence of God. Real joy comes from moving into the presence of God and abiding in the love of Christ. When the spirit of God is alive in us, one of the blessings the spirit brings to us is joy.
A Japanese lady asked the headmistress of a mission school, "Do you take only beautiful girls in your school?"
"Why, no, we welcome all girls," was the reply.
"But I’ve noticed that all your girls are beautiful."
"Well," said the missionary, "we teach them to love our Savior Jesus Christ, and he gives them a look of beauty."
"I am a Buddhist, and I do not desire my daughter to become a Christian, yet I should like her to attend your school to get that look on her face."
Recently a distinguished Britisher said that he visited an American home that seemed to have everything - two cars in the garage, a beautiful living room with expensive furniture, a color TV set, a kitchen filled with the latest gadgets, and a large pool and beautiful patio. However, the lady of the house was reading a book entitled, How to Be Happy.
Happiness is to know the Savior. Joy in discipleship is not attachment to things but is attachment to Jesus. This is why Paul and Silas, after being beaten and thrown into prison, could pray and sing hymns to God and thereby witness to the prisoners who listened to them. Joy is a sign of the presence of God in one’s life. To be a disciple of the Lord Jesus Christ is to experience a deeper level of joy.
Christianity is a religion of joy and excitement. There is nothing unhappy about it. It is for people who want the joy that comes from being involved in something worthwhile. Once you taste the joys of discipleship, you’ll notice that your life will have more meaning. You will even want to return for a second helping.
8. Love of Christ
Illustration
G. Curtis Jones
Legend has it that a wealthy merchant traveling through the Mediterranean world looking for the distinguished Pharisee, Paul, encountered Timothy, who arranged a visit. Paul was, at the time, a prisoner in Rome. Stepping inside the cell, the merchant was surprised to find a rather old man, physically frail, but whose serenity and magnetism challenged the visitor. They talked for hours. Finally the merchant left with Paul's blessing. Outside the prison, the concerned man inquired, "What is the secret of this man's power? I have never seen anything like it before."
Did you not guess?" replied Timothy. "Paul is in love."
The merchant looked bewildered. "In Love?"
"Yes," the missionary answered, "Paul is in love with Jesus Christ."
The merchant looked even more bewildered. "Is that all?"
Smiling, Timothy replied, "Sir, that is everything."
9. Is It Wellwith Your Family? - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
I must candidly confess that when I was in seminary the 16th chapter of Paul's letter to the Romans didn't do much for me. It struck me as being boring nothing more than a long presentation of people's names, most of whom I could not pronounce; I usually skimmed over that part so I could get to what I considered to be the real Gospel. Over the years I have greatly changed my attitude about this particular chapter and I have discovered that there is much more to it than I had first imagined. For example, it is interesting to note that of the twenty-six people who Paul singles out for his personal greeting, six were women. Now that strikes me as being rather interesting, since Paul has frequently gotten a bum rap for being a male chauvinist. I think it also shows us the tremendous influence that women had in the early church. In the male oriented first century Palestine, it is telling that Paul could not describe the church without mentioning the significant role of women.
Verse 13 of chapter 16 is particularly interesting and it is one that scholars have struggled with over the centuries. Paul writes: "Give my greetings to Rufus, chosen in the Lord, and his mother and mine." Now this statement could be taken two ways. It could mean that Paul had two distinct women in mind--the mother of Rufus and his own personal mother. Or, he could be saying: "I salute Rufus and his mother, who is like a mother to me." If that is what he meant, and most Biblical scholars agree that that is indeed what he meant, then it raises some interesting speculation. When and where did Paul meet Rufus' mother? Did she nurse him through some serious illness?
Did she receive him into her home for an extended stay during his missionary journeys? How did this woman and Paul form such a close bond that he refers to her fondly as being like his mother? Mark tells us that Simon of Cyrene, the man who carried Jesus cross, had two sons: Alexander and Rufus. Was this the same Rufus to whom Paul was speaking? If that is true, his mother would be Simon of Syrene's wife. No one knows for sure who this remarkable woman was who served as a mother figure for the great Paul. But it really makes no difference, because what he writes makes an excellent springboard for a Mother's Day sermon.
Some people ridicule Mother's Day as a lot of sentimental drivel. They say that it is nothing more than the creation of the greeting card companies and the florists. And, to be perfectly candid, there are many ministers who shun this day because, they say, it is not a religious holiday. Furthermore, they preach from the lectionary, which has an assigned scriptural reading each week, and therefore mother's day is left out.
Well, of course, we must admit that there is sentiment to this day, but what is wrong with that? Seems to me that a little bit of sentiment is healthy. True enough, there are some women in the Bible, such as Jezebel and the vindictive Herodias, who had John the Baptist beheaded, who tarnish the institution of motherhood. There are women today who abandon, abuse, and corrupt their children and who create a poor model, but I like to think that these are the exceptions. Most mothers do the right thing and deserve recognition. So this morning I would like to join Paul and salute all of the mothers who are with us.
1. First, mothers should be saluted for their tenacious love.
2. Secondly, mothers should be saluted for the tremendous impact they have.
3. Third, mothers should be saluted because where they are, that is where home is.
10. Get Real Results
Illustration
At the village church in Kalonovka, Russia, attendance at Sunday school picked up after the priest started handing out candy to the peasant children. One of the most faithful was a pug-nosed, pugnacious lad who recited his Scriptures with proper piety, pocketed his reward, then fled into the fields to munch on it. The priest took a liking to the boy, persuaded him to attend church school. This was preferable to doing household chores from which his devout parents excused him. By offering other inducements, the priest managed to teach the boy the four Gospels. In fact, he won a special prize for learning all four by heart and reciting them nonstop in church. Sixty years later, he still liked to recite Scriptures, but in a context that would've horrified the old priest. For the prize pupil, who memorized so much of the Bible, is Nikita Khrushchev, the former Communist czar.
As this anecdote illustrates, the "why" behind memorization is fully as important as the "what." The same Nikita Khrushchev who nimbly mouthed God's Word when a child, later declared God to be nonexistent because his cosmonauts had not seen Him. Khrushchev memorized the Scriptures for the candy, the rewards, the bribes, rather than for the meaning it had for his life. Artificial motivation will produce artificial results.
11. Lo, I am with You Always
Illustration
Jon L. Joyce
In John 20:9 we read, "We hadn’t realized that the Scriptures said ... ":How much do we know what the Scriptures say? In a day of biblical illiteracy people seem to know less and less of the glorious things on those pages of holy writ. But they are there for us to read, and to realize that they apply to us. It is God’s personal message for each of us.
A most interesting incident is told concerning a Chinese man whose first name was Lo. When he became a convert to Christianity and read the Bible he became greatly excited when he read his name in various places,"Lo, I am with you always." He thought the message was to him, personally. And he was right! The Scriptures are for our edification. Their promises apply to you. Vicky, I am with you always. Sam, I am with you always. Hannah, I am with you always. Matthew, I am with you always. In all of Christ'sglorious promises, He is with you always.
It is of us that the Bible says, "Though he were dead, yet shall he live." O wonderful Easter message of everlasting life - for us, always!
12. What Have You Heard?
Illustration
Staff
A rabbi and his pupil were discussing God's Word:
Rabbi: Herschel, do you know the sacred scriptures?
Pupil: Yes, teacher, I have been studying them.
Rabbi: And, do you know the phrase, 'Thus have I heard?'
Pupil: Oh, yes, that is throughout the scriptures.
Rabbi: Herschel, what have you heard?
13. Don't Surrender Your Gospels
Illustration
Staff
In the year A.D. 303, the Roman Emperor Diocletian issued a decree which he hoped would extinguish the spreading flames of Christianity. One of his primary objectives was the seizure and destruction of the Christian Scriptures. Later that year, officials enforced the decree in North Africa. One of the targets was Felix, Bishop of Tibjuca, a village near Carthage. The mayor of the town ordered Felix to hand over his Scriptures. Though some judges were willing to accept scraps of parchment, Felix refused to surrender the Word of God at the insistence of mere men. Resolutely, he resisted compromise. Roman authorities finally shipped Felix to Italy where he paid for his stubbornness with his life. On August 30, as the record puts it, "with pious obstinacy," he laid down his life rather than surrender his Gospels.
14. An Empty Stage, An Empty Tomb
Illustration
King Duncan
In his book, There I Go Again, Steven Moseley tells about Anna Pavlova, whowas a Russian ballet superstar of the early 1900s.Ms. Pavlova hadbeen celebratedas the greatest ballerina of all time. Her most memorable performance, however, took place after her death.
Anna was to play the role she made famous, the Dying Swan, at the Apollo Theatre in London. Tragically, she succumbed to pneumonia and died two days before the event.
Still, on the appointed night, a crowd of her fans packed the Apollo Theatre. The orchestra began playing, the curtain rose, a spotlight flashed through the dark, and the entire audience rose to its feet. They all stood gazing at a pool of light wandering around the stage, accompanied by the orchestral theme. As the light danced and the orchestra played, they remembered Anna Pavlova. In their hearts they could see her on stage, dressed in white with flashing dark eyes. And when the music stopped at last, they gave the departedAnna a thunderous ovation that echoed on and on in the night.
An empty stage with only a spotlight, but in their hearts she was alive.
For some, this is the experience of Easter. The Lord was crucified, he died as all of us will one day die, and he was laid in a borrowed tomb, but in the hearts of his disciples he lives forever. An empty stage, but not an empty tomb.
Which is it? Are we immortal because there are those who remember and cherish the fact that once we walked this "vale of tears" or are we immortal because Christ has once and forever battered down the gates of death? Empty stage or empty tomb?
Note:This is a true story but we think that the vacant spotlight stage is an old tradition in some countries for departed stars of the stage. So, the celebration itself may not be unique toAnna Pavlova. We searched to confirm this but found only one vague reference which caused to us to come tothis conclusion.
15. Do Not Be Afraid
Illustration
Todd Weir
"Do not be afraid." The scriptures make this announcement over and over again. These are usually the first words out of angel's mouths. Abraham, Moses, Mary, Joseph, shepherds tending their flocks, Paul sitting in a jail cell, the women looking for Christ's body at Easter and disciples rowing a boat in the strong wind all hear these words. In all, these words occur almost 100 times in the scriptures. Apparently, humans are very fearful creatures and we are in need of faith to function properly in the world.
16. The Secret of Power
Illustration
Richard J. Fairchild
The story is told of the explorer who some years ago had just returned to his country from the Amazon. The people at home were eager to learn all about the vast and mighty river and the country surrounding it.How he wondered, could he ever describe it to them - how could he ever put into words the feelings that flooded into his heart when he saw the exotic flowers and heard the night sounds of the jungle. How could he communicate to them the smells the filled the air and the sense of danger and excitement that would come whenever he and his fellows explorers encountered strange animals or paddled through treacherous rapids?
So the explorer did what all good explorers do - he said to the people, "go and find out for yourselves what it is like", and to help them he drew a map of the river pointing out the various features of its course and describing some of the dangers and some of the routes that could be used to avoid those dangers.
The people took the map and they framed and hung it on the wall of the local science museum so that everyone could look at it. Some made copies of it. After a period of time many of those who made copies for themselves considered themselves experts on the river - and indeed they knew its every turn and bend, they knew how broad it was and how deep, where the rapids where and where the falls. They knew the river and they instructed others in what it was like whenever those people indicated an interest in it.
I think that many people today are in the same situation. We know the scriptures but we do not understand them. And we do not understand them because we have not been there. We must not simply look at the scriptures and their meaning, we must go there. We must experience what it means to repent of our sins and allow God to forgive us. Would you this morning take the map down from the wall and go to the river with me. See what is there. Allow Christ to open your mind, to breathe his Holy Spirit upon you, and make you a disciple from the heart. Amen
17. The Silent Bible
Illustration
Donald M. Tuttle
In 1970, James Smart wrote a little book entitled "The Strange Silence of the Bible in the Church." In it he convincingly argued that the Scriptures were falling silent in the teaching and preaching of the church and in the consciousness of the people in the pews. More than 30 years ago—back in what some see as the glory days of the church—vast sections of the Christian faith had already stopped listening to Jesus. Sermons largely ignored the biblical text. Sunday School classes were more interested in psychology than theology. Bible studies virtually disappeared as fewer and fewer of the faithful attended.
Now, decades later, not a lot has changed. Today studies show that biblical illiteracy is high—that many churchgoers reared in the modern Sunday School and youth programs lack even a basic knowledge of the Scriptures. The Bible remains silent—and Jesus with it.
If we are to build our lives, our children's lives and our grandchildren's lives on a solid foundation, listening to Jesus is essential. There is no where better to begin than the Sermon on the Mount. As Dallas Willard has noted, in the Sermon on the Mount Jesus addresses "the guts of human existence"
18. SALESWOMAN
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
Acts 16:14 - "One who heard us was a woman named Lydia, from the city of Thyatira, a seller of purple goods, who was a worshipper of God."
It may seem surprising to think of a saleswoman in connection with the Bible, even though we are certainly familiar with them as a part of the economic life of today. But we have the impression that women in biblical times were completely unenterprising, and were restricted to their homes. This is, of course, largely true, but there are exceptions.
Today we have a great deal of respect for the woman who has managed to make a place for herself in the business world, whether it be as a lowly sales clerk, or as the head of a department, or even as the head of a company. But if you will read Proverbs 31, you might be surprised to learn that the merchandising skills of women were highly regarded. The author praises her real-estate ventures, her manufacture and sale of linen garments, and such activities.
But still, we must admit, the opportunities for a woman to establish herself in business were slim indeed. So it is even more praise-worthy that we find a woman of such exceptional business sense as Lydia apparently was. If we read the book of Acts properly, we might assume that both Ananias and his wife Sapphira sold real estate; Aquila and his wife Priscilla were both tent-makers and presumably sold their products.
But it is something to think about, isn’t it? An ancient form of Women’s Lib? Perhaps. But more likely just another manifestation of ability making its presence known.
19. Love Is Awareness
Illustration
Maxie Dunnam
Down in Mississippi, where I grew up, we had a quaint way of describing a beginning courtship: “John is paying attention to Mary.” Pretty descriptive.
A friend of mine shared with me that for about three years he had intentionally sought the meaning of love. He talked about it with preachers and philosophers, with the educated and the uneducated. The most helpful definition he received came from a workman in a furniture factory. “Love is awareness,” the man said. That became a key for exciting living for my friend and has turned him into one of the most sensitive, alive people I know.
That’s not everything love is, but it is that -- awareness. A recent study indicated that some of the loneliest persons are married couples. They have nice homes, good jobs, money, family, everything, but they are out of touch with each other. Love means relationship. Relationship requires awareness. So the answer to our deepest need for love begins in paying attention.
20. Tearing the Roof Off
Illustration
Larry Powell
It seemsthe scribes were always around. In our scripture we learn that Jesus was at his home in Capernaum. When word spread throughout the community, a great crowd gathered inside and out the house, prevailing upon Jesus to teach them. We are told that some of the scribes "were sitting there questioning in their hearts." Why were they there anyway? Out of curiosity? To heckle? To find fault? Were they acquaintances of Jesus that they could come into his home and find a place to sit while so many others were standing? I don’t know ... but it seems the Scriptures always bear the same foreboding comment, "the scribes were sitting there," or "nearby." At any rate, on this particular occasion, they got their eyes full.
First, there was a commotion. Four men were literally dismantling the roof of the house. When a large enough opening had been torn away, down came a pallet with a man on it. Although the Scriptures do not mention the scribe’s reaction to the paralytic’s rather crude entrance, we can imagine the sudden changing of their sophisticated expressions as they tugged nervously at their robes and mumbled beneath their breath. However, they may not have been surprised at all ... they had joked among themselves that the Nazarene’s clientele included harlots, tax collectors, the sick, unstable, ne’er-do-wells, and common sinners. Perhaps such an abrupt intrusion through the roof did not impress them at all, but was rather consistent with the kind of people attracted by the unorthodox carpenter. But again, that was but the beginning.
Jesus made bold to forgive the paralytic’s sins! The scribes could sit still no longer: "Who can forgive sins but God alone?" Jesus replied, "Why do you question me like this? Let me ask you a question; which is easier to say to a paralytic, ‘Your sins are forgiven,’ or ‘Rise, take up your pallet and walk?’ " In a word, it is a small matter to mouth the words, "Your sins are forgiven." It is true that anyone can repeat these words whether they have the authority or not but in order that the scribes might know that Jesus possessed the authority, he did something more. Turning to the paralytic, he said, "Rise, take up your pallet and go home." To their astonishment, the paralytic did just that. He had received a double portion inasmuch as his sins had been forgiven and he had been physically healed. Additionally, the scribes had something to think about.
I want to say a word about the persistent souls who tore the roof off the house. Their determination is to be admired. Have you ever entertained the thought of visiting a sick friend or shut-in but decided against it because the weather was threatening, or the temperature was uncomfortable, or you were tired? Even the best of intentions are sometimes easily discouraged. Here were four men who could have turned away from the house when they saw such a crowd, thinking "we’ll come again later." But no, they pushed their way through the crowd with the paralytic, climbed to the roof and made up their minds to get inside. They loved their friend enough to go to some extra effort, and they had absolute faith that the man inside could heal him. I hope I have a few friends like that. The paralytic owed a great deal of his recovery to his friends. What a combination: loving friends, persistent faith, and the touch of Christ!
21. TENTMAKER
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
Acts 18:3 - "And because he was of the same trade, he stayed with them, and they worked, for by trade they were tentmakers."
Because of the general use of tents by the Hebrews, the making of tents was an important industry. Both men and women were involved in this trade, and many of them worked in their own homes on homemade looms.
Although originally the tents were probably made of animal skins, it is likely that the early biblical patriarchs had ones made of a coarse cloth, such as is still used by Bedouins today. This cloth was made from black goat’s hair, which would shrink after a rain, stretching it tightly across the tent poles. We have the evidence from the New Testament that Paul, who came from Cilicia, was a tentmaker. And this black goat’s hair comes primarily from there. In fact, because of this it was given the name "cilicium" in Latin.
Starting with this black - or sometimes dark brown - material, weathering in the sun soon turned it into a golden brown, and the addition of new material then gave it a striped or stippled effect, which was not unpleasing. New tents were also added to the enclosure of clan encampments after weddings, and this practice gave rise to the "bridal canopy" which is still a part of the Jewish wedding ceremony.
Even after the Hebrews settled in Canaan, and began to live in houses in the villages, they still returned to live in tents during the summer harvest season. During this Feast of Tabernacles, the Jews erected tabernacles, or booths, upon the roofs of their homes or in the courtyard, in commemoration of the days when they dwelt in tents in the wilderness. For a whole week they lived out of doors in these booths. It is from these structures that the festival received its name.
Paul, of course, is the most famous tentmaker that we know. But, as our text reminds us, there were many of them, including Aquila and Priscilla, with whom he stayed while in Corinth. Today he would have been right at home working with our modern tentmakers (for those of us who enjoy camping and the great outdoors), those who work with canvas, and, perhaps, with leatherworkers.
22. Antagonist: Antagonists in the Church
Illustration
Kenneth C Haugk
From Antagonists in the Church:How to Identify and Deal With Destructive Conflict
Definition of an antagonist: Someone who on the basis of non-substantive evidence, goes out of their way to make insatiable demands, usually attacking the person or performance of others; these attacks are selfish in nature, tear down rather than build up, and are frequently directed against leadership.
Kinds of antagonists: Hard core (usually irrational, unreasonable) and Major antagonist (possible to reason with them, but they will not be reasoned with).
Identifying Antagonists
- Is his/her behavior disruptive?
- Is the attack irrational?
- Does he/she go out of h/h way to initiate trouble?
- Does h/s make insatiable demands?
- Are h/h concerns minimal or fabricated?
- Does h/s avoid causes that involve personal risk/suffering/sacrifice?
- Does h/h motivation appear selfish?
Red Flags To Watch For:
- Previous track record
- Parallel track record (antagonist at work, school, club, etc.)
- Nameless others: "At least 24 others feel this same way."
- Criticism of predecessor
- Instant buddy
- Gushing praise
- "I Gotcha!" Asks leading questions, tries to trap you.
- Extraordinary likeability
- Church hopper
- Liar
- Uses aggressive means: extreme, combative, unethical
- Flashes $$$
- Takes notes at inappropriate times
- Sarcasm, cutting language
- Different drummer, always doing things their own way
- A pest incessant phone calls, questions, etc.
- The "cause"
Early Warning Signs:
- Chill in the relationship
- Honeyed "concerns" "Dear pastor, I have a concern about ..." may mean "I'm angry!!"
- Nettlesome questions
- Mobilizing forces, pot stirring
- Meddling in others' responsibilities
- Resistance
Later Warning Signs:
- Sloganeering
- Accusing
- Spying
- Distorting
- Misquoting scripture
- "Judas kissing" "I'm your friend, but I have to say..."
- Smirking
- Letter writing (don't respond with a lengthy, reasoned answer)
- Pretense
- Lobbying
Preventing Antagonism:
- Follow established policies
- Functional feedback channels
- Job descriptions
- Broad base of responsibility
- Discipline that works
- Anticipatory socialization let people know plans
- United front within leadership
Relating To Dormant Antagonists:
- Act professionally
- Keep your distance
- Be accurate, don't guess, estimate
- Avoid excessive positive reinforcement
- Tighten the reins
- Don't seek sympathy from others
- Don't form a committee to look into accusations, this only appears to give credibility to their charges
- Don't call for a vote of confidence
23. Tying Bootlaces
Illustration
Maxie Dunnam
Ensor Walters was an English Methodist preacher in another generation. He was educated in one of the most cultured prep schools of England and Oxford University, then ordained. His first appointment was a little mission in one of the worst slums of London.
Telling of the experience, he said, “I went down there with my frock coat and top hat, figuratively and literally. As I walked up the steps into the shabby meeting house, a ragged, dirty-faced cripple stuck out his club foot on the steps and said, “Tie me bootlace, guv?”
“I stooped down,” he said, “and my top hat fell off, figuratively and literally. I’ve been tying bootlaces ever since.”
It’s a marvelous picture of a much-needed lifestyle. I hear it over and over again: “I’ve never known a joy like this -- the joy of serving others.” You can find this joy at a shelter for the homeless, delivering meals on wheels, or visiting the nursing home. To be able to put aside our selfishness, to reach out and love others, is a grace we need to cultivate.
24. In Search of Self
Illustration
Larry Powell
A television program, The People’s Court,involves a real-life judge presiding over actual courtroom cases. The judge sits behind the bench wearing a black robe, pronouncing final decisions pertaining to legal disputes. When you and I hear the term "judge," we probably envision such a person as the one just described. However, the judges described in the Old Testament functioned quite differently. Judges were military leaders who were raised up by the grace of God to govern Israel in times of trial. Psalm 2:10 relates that they enjoyed parallel authority to kings. It has been suggested that they were similar to the American Indian war chief whose authority was limited to the duration of a conflict.
The Hebrew people entered Canaan as a nomadic people with one God. Soon following the death of Joshua, it was as if they literally forgot themselves. Knowing little about agriculture, it was only natural that they should consult their Canaanite neighbors about how to manage crops. The Canaanites obliged not only by instructing them on how to raise crops, but also by teaching them about the gods who presided over the crops: the baals. From that point on, things began to go downhill. The God who had brought them safely across the sea and the Jordan River was forgotten and the new baals were worshiped. God’s own people had literally forgotten who they were. The need was to get back to God.
From all appearances, it seems that from time to time we have forgotten our own identity. 1. We have disillusioned ourselves into believing that we must have everything in small doses or condensed form. The Reader’s Digest has produced a condensed version of the Bible for those persons who "don’t have the time" to read the Scriptures in their entirely. We attend speed-reading clinics to enable us to read faster, but then there are those who prefer to see a movie about something rather than read the book. We like our news in short snatches such as we find on the 6:00 or 10:00 news report. We take our meals from fast food outlets and often eat them on the run. We want our religion packaged neatly into an hour on Sunday morning, and if it goes beyond that, we begin shaking our watches. It is as if we believe we must have our food, news, entertainment, and religion in short doses. 2. We have apparently fallen victim to a low self-esteem. Robert Schuller has written a new book titled Self-Esteem: The New Reformation, in which he proposes that the reason we are willing to settle for second and third best is because we have such a low opinion of ourselves. We will not pursue that observation here, but will simply remark that low self-esteem is a contradictory attitude to the picture of humanity presented in the Scriptures: "created in the image of God," and "the child of a king." 3. We have embraced what I refer to as a placebo ethic. That is, an ethic which is questionable but which makes us just "feel better" because we espouse it. Consider for instance, the movie rating system, which we have mistaken to be a kind of safeguard against our youth being offended by objectionable material (i.e., "PG" or "R" ratings). We know however, that any youth who has the price of admission can usually be admitted. We know that probably they are not going to hear any word that they have not already heard before. We know that they are not going to see much more violence than they have already seen on the 6:00 news. We know that about anything else they would see, they probably have seen it in some form or another already. We know that the rating is all but irrelevant, but we just "feel better" because it is there. We admonish our youth not to do something which we turn around and do ourselves, but we "feel better" because we have admonished them.
The Hebrew people in Canaan were faced with the problem of recovering their own identity. I submit, so are we!
25. The Messiah Is Among You
Illustration
William White
There was a famous monastery which had fallen on very hard times. Formerly its many buildings were filled with young monks, and its huge chapel resounded with the singing of the choir. But now it was deserted. People no longer came there to be nourished by prayer. A handful of old monks shuffled through the cloisters and praised God with heavy hearts.
On the edge of the monastery woods, an old rabbi had built a tiny hut. He would come there from time to time to fast and pray. No one ever spoke with him, but whenever he appeared, the word would be passed from monk to monk: "The rabbi walks in the woods." And, for as long as he was there, the monks would feel sustained by his prayerful presence.
One day the abbot decided to visit the rabbi and open his heart to him. So, after the morning Eucharist, he set out through the woods. As he approached the hut, the abbot saw the rabbi standing in the doorway, his arms outstretched in welcome. It was as though he had been waiting there for some time. The two embraced like long-lost brothers. Then they stepped back and just stood there, smiling at one another with smiles their faces could hardly contain.
After a while, the rabbi motioned the abbot to enter. In the middle of the room was a wooden table with the Scriptures open on it. They sat there for a moment, in the presence of the Book. Then the rabbi began to cry. The abbot could not contain himself. He covered his face with his hands and began to cry, too. For the first time in his life, he cried his heart out. The two men sat there like lost children, filling the hut with their sobs and moistening the wood of the table with their tears.
After the tears had ceased to flow and all was quiet again, the rabbi lifted his head. "You and your brothers are serving God with heavy hearts," he said. "You have come to ask a teaching of me. I will give you a teaching, but you can only repeat it once. After that, no one must ever say it aloud again."
The rabbi looked straight at the abbot and said, "The Messiah is among you." For a while, all was silent. Then the rabbi said, "Now you must go." The abbot left without ever looking back.
The next morning, the abbot called his monks together in the chapter room. He told them that he had received a teaching from the rabbi who walks in the woods, and that this teaching was never again to be spoken aloud. Then he looked at each of his brothers and said, "The rabbi said that one of us is the Messiah."
The monks were startled by this saying. "What could it mean?" they asked themselves. "Is brother John the Messiah? No, he's too old and crotchety. Is brother Thomas? No, he's too stubborn and set in his ways. Am I the Messiah? What could this possibly mean?" They were all deeply puzzled by the rabbi's teaching. But no one ever mentioned it again.
As time went by, though, something unusual began to happen at the monastery. The monks began to treat one another with a very special reverence. There was a gentle, wholehearted, human quality about them now which was hard to describe, but easy to notice. They lived with one another as brothers who had finally found something. And yet, they prayed over the Scriptures together as those who were still looking for something. Visitors found themselves deeply moved by the genuine caring and sharing that went on among the brothers. Before long, people were again coming from far and wide to be nourished by the prayer life of these monks. And young men were asking, once again, to become part of the community.
In those days, the rabbi no longer walked in the woods. His hut had fallen into ruins. But somehow or other, the older monks who had taken his teaching to heart still felt sustained by his prayerful presence.
26. Grounded in Faith
Illustration
John E. Harnish
St. Paul's letters to the Corinthian church are written to a church torn by political and theological battles, a church unsure of its foundations and faith, a church struggling with issues of sexual morality and social pressure. So he reminds them:
Now I would remind you, brothers and sisters, in what terms I preached the Gospel, which you received and in which you stand. For I delivered to you as of first importance what I also received: That Christ died for our sins according to the scriptures, that he was buried and that he was raised on the third day, in accordance to the scriptures. (I Corinthians 15:1)
It's the reminder of the central message of the Gospel, a reminder of the word we have to proclaim. And today, just as in the Corinthian church, there is a desperate need for disciples of Christ to be grounded in the faith, to grow together in our spiritual journey, to nurture one another in the life and spirit of Jesus Christ.
27. Saturate Your Heart
Illustration
James M. Gray
The noted Bible scholar James M. Gray told a story that underscores the importance of reading the Scriptures for personal growth. He said that when he was a young Bible teacher he became deeply impressed by the peace and spiritual poise of a friend with whom he often talked. Since Gray wanted that same stability, he asked his companion the secret of his confident bearing and positive outlook. "It all started through reading Ephesians," said the man. Gray was surprised by this simple response. He had read Ephesians many times but had never experienced the same strength he saw in his friend. Noticing Fray's puzzled look, the man explained. "On one occasion, when I was on a short vacation, I took a pocket edition of Ephesians with me. Lying down one afternoon, I read all six chapters. My interest was so aroused that I read the entire epistle again. In fact, I did not finally lay it down until I had gone through it some 15 times." He then said, "When I arose to go into the house, I was in possession of Ephesians; or better yet, it was in possession of me. I had the feeling that I had been lifted up to sit together in heavenly places with Christ Jesus a feeling that was new to me." This testimony encouraged Gray to master the Scriptures for himself. He began to saturate his mind and heart with God's Word so that he could freely and effectively communicate it to others.
28. Loved No Matter What
Illustration
Maxie Dunnam
During a terrible period of his political career, Theodore Roosevelt discovered life's pressures to be almost unbearable. He tells of an evening when things were looking mighty low until he came home where Edith, his wife, met him at the door. In a letter to his sister, he shared his feelings:
"As I went up the stairs I suddenly realized that after all, no matter what the outcome of the election was, my happiness was assured. That even though my ambition to have the seal of approval put upon my administration might not be gratified, my happiness was assured. For my life with Edith and my children constitutes my happiness.”
It is a source of great strength and support to have a family and friends who stand with us no matter what. Greater yet is the confidence that what we do is for the good of humankind and is in keeping with God's will. Not enough of us stop to ask about the consequences of our action and certainly not enough of us cultivate our family and core relationships enough to give us confidence that we are loved no matter what.
29. Two Pats of Butter
Illustration
Michael P. Green
The story has been told of a bank employee who was due for a good promotion. One day at lunch the president of the bank, who happened to be standing behind the clerk in the cafeteria, which charged small fees for condiments, saw him slip two pats of butter under his slice of bread so they wouldn’t be seen by the cashier.
That little act of dishonesty cost him his promotion. Just a few pennies’ worth of butter made the difference. The bank president reasoned that if an employee cannot be trusted in little things he cannot be trusted at all.
30. Daring Words
Illustration
Larry Powell
The Gospel according to Mark, commonly accepted to be the earliest of the synoptics, relates that Jesus began his Galilean ministry by 1. making an announcement, 2. extending an invitation, and 3. issuing a command. It would be pressing the matter entirely too far to even remotely suggest that the sequence of events was intentional, yet there is a certain familiarity about the sequence itself. As a matter of fact, the three ingredients, broadly categorized above, probably bear a striking resemblance to the sermon you will likely hear in your particular church on any given Sunday: a. the announcement of a Gospel truth; b. the exhortation, with some degree of urgency, to accomplish something in the name of Christ, and c. the invitation to respond. Intentional or not, Jesus began his ministry with a format exceptionally accommodating to Gospel preachers. However, let us take up the sequence as described by Mark.
1. The announcement. The arrest of John the baptizer apparently served as the catalyst for Jesus to reveal the messianic secret. For thirty years, he had maintained a low profile, preparing himself, shaping his perspectives, waiting - waiting for the proper time to thrust himself prominently into the midst of human affairs. At last, the moment had arrived: "The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel" (1:15). Daring words! He had made bold as a young man sometime earlier in his hometown synagogue to proclaim that the Scriptures had been fulfilled at his reading. The Nazarenes responded by chasing him from the community. He knew full well that there would be a more general uprising against him now by both civil and religious authorities. But there was no choice. The groundwork had been laid, preparations had been completed, John was in prison, and the alarm must continue to be sounded: "The kingdom of God is at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel."
2. The invitation. He would need help. Passing along the Sea of Galilee he saw two brothers, Simon and Andrew. Without the slightest qualification, he said to them, "Follow me and I will make you fishers of men." Take notice that no questions were asked, no excuses offered, no "process planning" nor introspective "objective-setting" dialogue transpired. Mark says, "And immediately they left their nets and followed him." Going a little farther, two other brothers, James and John heard a similar, abrupt invitation to respond in like manner. How do you account for the fact that these four individuals, secure in employment, having obligations and immediate responsibilities, walked away from it all to follow one who had come upon them from behind, no questions asked? Perhaps a part of the answer is found in 1:22 where Jesus is referred to as one who spoke with "authority," and not as the scribes. This particular reflection upon the scribes, implying a certain insipidness, interests us. They possessed authority by virtue of their position. Why did they not speak with authority? Conjecture is risky business, but we have a notion that their recitations were mechanical, unfeeling, and sing-song. Devotion may have been reduced to formalized vocation, and the sharp edge of adeptness dulled by neglect. Figureheads occupy space but command little respect, whether they be scribes, ministers, bishops, church-school teachers, or members of a church staff. One must be more than simply a "figure-head." Perhaps we should each take counsel with ourselves regarding the phrase, "for he taught as one having authority, not as the scribes."
3. The command. Jesus rebuked an unclean spirit and commanded it to come out of a man in the synagogue, "and the unclean spirit ... came out of him" (1:26). Let us note the response: "They were all amazed and said ‘With authority he commands even the unclean spirits’ " (1:27).
Jesus began his public ministry with an announcement, an invitation, and a command, but most of all with authority.
31. Giving Thanks for Our Trouble
Illustration
Ours is a God who does not despise or abhor the affliction of the afflicted and does not hide his face from them." There is always a sense in which great living is found in the midst of suffering and tears.
An old Yiddish folk story tells of a well-to-do gentleman of leisured much interested in the Hebrew Scriptures. He visited a wise rabbi to ask a question. He said: "I think I grasp the sense and meaning of these writings except for one thing. I cannot understand how we can be expected to give God thanks for our troubles." The rabbi knew instantly that he could not explain this with mere words. He said to the gentleman: "If you want to understand this, you will have to visit Isaac the water-carrier." The gentleman was mystified by this, but knowing the rabbi to be wise, crossed to a poor section of the settlement and came upon Isaac the water-carrier, an old man who had been engaged in mean, lowly, backbreaking labor for some fifty years.
The gentleman explained the reason for his visit. Isaac paused from his labors. Finally, after several minutes of silence, looking baffled, hespoke: "I know that the rabbi is the wisest of men. But I cannot understand why he would send you to me with that question. I can't answer it because I've had nothing but wonderful things happen to me. I thank God every morning and night for all his many blessings on me and my family."
It is true, is it not? The pure in heart see God. The humble in spirit know Christ's joy and enter into God's glory. "For I consider," writes Paul, "that the sufferings of the present time are not worth comparing with the glory that is to be revealed to us."
32. The Worship Wars
Illustration
Stephen M. Crotts
We pastors call it The Worship Wars. One can see the frowning battlements in the faces seated in pews, hear the rumble of its artillery in negative comments, and feel the white heat of its lethal shrapnel in board meetings.
"It's boring!"
"Why, those songs are so old, every time I sing them I get a backache!"
"Worship is becoming a nightclub act! What will we do next?"
"Choruses are 7-11 worship. Seven words repeated eleven times!"
Any pastor, any active church member alive today is in the trenches of this warfare. Thankfully, the scriptures can be our guide through the mine-fields of this battleground. And today's text, a parable of Jesus, is a good place to begin. [read Luke 18:9-14]
Well, ladies and gentlemen, there you have it. Two men. The same church service. Two totally different approaches to worship.
Mr. Pharisee about whom Jesus said "... trusted in himself that he was righteous and regarded others with contempt," so cleverly told us he came to church with one eye on himself, one eye on his neighbor, and no eye on God. And I might point out that Jesus said even though this man went to church, he was not a part of the community for he was "standing by himself." And Jesus said pointedly that he was never forgiven by God, for "all who exalt themselves will be humbled." I guess you might say he was so self-conscious he lost his God-consciousness.
The second gentleman, however, the tax collector, "went down to his home justified." It seems that even though he was not satisfied with himself, God was.
So, from the text, which of these two men do you relate to in worship? You went to church today. What happened?
33. Inerrancy of Scripture
Illustration
Staff
A survey in the 90's produced some dismal results about people's belief in the inerrancy of Scripture. The results would likely be the same today because there's not a lot of room for it to get worse. Here are the findings: 85% of the students in one of America's largest evangelical seminaries stated that they do not believe in the inerrancy of Scripture. Beyond that, a poll of 10,000 U.S.A. clergymen (of whom 74% replied) by sociologist Jeffery Hadden in 1987 clearly reveals the effects of this significant change of belief through the passage of time. When asked if they believed that the Scriptures are the inspired and inerrant Word of God in faith, history, and secular matters:
95% of Episcopalians said "No."
87% of Methodists said "No."
82% of Presbyterians said "No."
77% of American Lutherans said "No."
67% of American Baptists said "No."
This sad commentary speaks for itself.
34. How My Light Is Spent
Illustration
Robert Pack and Jay Parini, Editors, adapted from Miller Williams
When I read in the scriptures of Bartimaeus regaining his sight, I celebrate the power of faith. One of the greatest poems in the English language was written by John Milton in 1652 as he dealt with the onset of his own blindness.John Milton’s contention with himself as he thought on his blindness was not simply a complaint ora chastening. Clearly he was in anguish not only at his loss of sight but at his inability to serve God as he thought he should. But, Milton found through his loss not only the resignation to abide it but turned his mind with a startling clarity of thought and vision to writing his most memorable work: Paradise Lost.
Listen to Milton's words in another poem about his experience of turning darkness into light. Here is Milton's"How My Light is Spent":
When I consider how my light is spent
Ere half my days in this dark world and wide,
And that one talent which is death to hide
Lodg'd with me useless, though my soul more bent
To serve therewith my Maker, and present
My true account, lest he returning chide,
"Doth God exact day-labour, light denied?"
I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent
That murmur, soon replies: "God doth not need
Either man's work or his own gifts: who best
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state
Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed
And post o'er land and ocean without rest:
They also serve who only stand and wait."
True faith has vision that goes beyond mere sight. Or as Jesus would say to blind Bartemaeus, as to all of us, "Do you want to see?"
35. Divided They Fall
Illustration
John R. Steward
In Plato's Symposium there is an allegory that imagines the beginning of human beings. The gods created humans in a very unique way. Each human was a mixture of both male and female. In other words, each human had four hands, two noses, four feet, and two mouths. They also had both male and female genitals. Having been created in this way they were extremely powerful. They were so powerful that they became aggressive against the gods. Fearing that they would try to take over, the gods decided that they must punish the humans. They decided that they could not kill the humans, for then there would be no one to worship them. Finally, Zeus decided that humans would continue to live but that they would be cut in half. By cutting them into two parts they would no longer retain the power. Zeus carried out his plan. He cut the humans in two, asking Apollo to help so that the wounds would not be apparent. After this was done the humans were sent separately in different directions into the world. These humans spent the rest of their lives searching for their other halves who could make them whole.
Some today live as if this story is true. Many spend their lives believing that another human being can fill the emptiness in their lives and make them whole. No other human being can make us whole. The songs on the radio are wrong. It will never work. Instead, we should "lay aside" this frivolous pursuit and all the other ones that never truly fulfill and look to Jesus. He is the only one who can satisfy our hunger for wholeness.
36. The Greatest Truth
Illustration
There is an old story about the theologian, Karl Barth [pronounced "Bart"with a soft "t"], who was on a speaking tour of the United States. On college campuses all across this country, he was drawing huge crowds to hear his very complex answers to the questions of life.
When he was speaking at PrincetonUniversity, the great hall was packed with faculty, students, and visitors who came to hear Karl Barth speak. During the question and answer period, one student asked, "Dr.Barth, may I ask you a personal question?"
Dr. Barth smiled and said, "Yes, you may ask anything."
The student then asked, "Dr. Barth, you are a very educated man. What is the greatest truth you have ever learned?"
Dr. Barth bowed his head, thinking for a moment about how he would respond. Then, he raised his head and looked out at the student who asked the question and he said, "The greatest truth I ever learned was at my mother's knee: ‘Jesus loves me, this I know, for the Bible tells me so.' "
The secret of effective living is to discover the truth about Jesus Christ. When we focus on him, we have discovered that truth is a caring love, truth is the Word becoming flesh. Truth is experiencing his life-giving power. Truth is discovering his love with arms outstretched to embrace us. When we grasp this truth, we have discovered the secret to effective living.
Note:Thisoften cited story appears to be true as an eye witness has corroborated it. Seethisblog and the authors attempt to verify the information:https://www.patheos.com/blogs/rogereolson/2013/01/did-karl-barth-really-say-jesus-loves-me-this-i-know/
37. Urim and Thummim
Illustration
Michael P. Green
The story has been told of a young man who was a recent graduate of a theological seminary. Educated beyond his intelligence, he had arrived at the spot where he thought he knew all the answers to all the theological problems and was eager to parade his knowledge. He came to a certain town where lived an elderly Christian layman who had never been to a Bible school or seminary but had taught himself the Word of God under the tutelage of the Holy Spirit. In a very humble way, he had gained a reputation as a man of wise counsel. When the prideful young theologian heard about him, he said, “I’d like to meet that man. I think I could ask him a question or two that he couldn’t answer!”
So a meeting was arranged. The first thing the young man said was, “Sir, I hear that you have quite a reputation as a Bible student. I’d like to ask you a question.” The old man said, “Well, I don’t know if I can answer it, but I’d be glad to try. What is your question?” The young man said, “Tell me, what were the Urim and the Thummim? The old man thought a moment, then said, “Well, sir, I don’t know really, and I don’t think anyone else does either. We do know the names mean ‘lights’ and ‘perfections’ and that these were the instruments by which the high priest could determine the mind of God in specific instances. Beyond that, I don’t think I could go. But you know, I’ve found that if we change just one letter in these words, we have the instrument by which we can know the mind and will of God in our lives.”
The young man was a bit puzzled. “What do you mean?” The old man said, “Well, it you change the ‘r’ in Urim to an ‘s,’ you’ll make it ‘Usim and Thummim.’ An when I want to know the mind of God, I just take the pages of my Bible and I ‘Usim and Thummim.’ And by that means I can learn whatever I need to know!”
38. PARABLE OF THE BEST CHURCH
Illustration
"Mother, isn't our Church better than the one Eddie goes to?"
"Billy, we do not talk that way about places of worship," replied the mother. "God, our Heavenly Father, is worshiped in each place."
"But he says his is better," Billy persisted, "and I say it is not. Which of us is right?"
"Perhaps his is better for him, and ours is better for us. We do have a freedom of choice in America, and that is a fine blessing," stated the mother.
"What do you mean? One has to be better than the others, doesn't it?" asked the son.
Faced with the question while shopping for clothes, the mother used the material at hand to explain her answer. She pointed out the many different pairs of trousers on the counters. There are some that fit better than others, and even with the size correct her choice of color, style and purpose, as well as cost, would determine the selection. All the trousers were made to clothe the wearer, yet some were most suitable for work or play.
"Yes, there are some who will criticize you for what you wear, and for where you worship. But, Billy, you will come to know what fits best and feels best, and suits your needs. But you may proudly wear what you have chosen," reasoned the mother.
We are all made by the same Heavenly Father and dwell within the boundaries of what God has made for man. We worship Christ in many different ways. Some honor Him as a great Teacher, as a perfect Example, as the Son of God, and as a personal Saviour.
We all may honor Him in remembrance of the Words He spoke, "In this shall ye know my disciples, that ye love one another," and "The Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath."
Each disciple saw Christ from his own point of experience and belief, but all sought to follow as best he knew how. Yet they quarreled among themselves.
Through our faith in God, Human hatreds are to be overcome by Godly Love.
39. A New Kingdom Coming
Illustration
Maurice A. Fetty
John Wycliffe had a vision of a Bible in the common English tongue, but dogmatists anchored to the past killed him for it.
John Huss dreamed a dream of a responsible Christian life guided by the scriptures. Traditionalists burned him at the stake.
Martin Luther was awakened to a new reality of God's grace -- an awakening not shared by contemporaries profiting from the status quo. Consequently, he was hunted for years for revealing an exciting and preferable future.
A kingdom was coming and the powers of the past could not prevail against it.
40. INTERPRETER
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
Genesis 42:23 - "They did not know that Joseph understood them, for there was an interpreter between them."
I suppose that most of us have had occasion to visit the United Nations assembly building, or, at least, are familiar with the idea of the convention. All of the representative nations send delegates, who present their countries’ opinions and, sometimes, requests, to the general assembly.
Now, obviously, there are very few people in the world who are sufficiently gifted in languages to be able to understand more than one language other than their own native tongue. So, it is reasonable to recognize that there must be persons who will translate into other languages. If you and I were to hear a Russian speak, it is very likely that we would be totally unable to understand him. But a Russian, schooled in America, and so conversant in both languages, could be a translator - an interpreter - between us. And then we would both understand what the other is trying to say.
The same situation existed in the ancient world. There were many tongues, and dialects within tongues, just as today. And so it became necessary for interpreters to help out in dealing with sticky situations. And, actually, these men had a very good thing going for them. Just as today, we respect the man of learning and accomplishments, and give him a high position. The same was true for the ancients. Interpreters in general were highly regarded and given many honors.
Interpreters today acquire their knowledge of languages through schooling or, in some rather exotic instances, through living in foreign lands. But the ancients learned their languages through travel - sometimes as merchants, who later rose to a position of importance; or sometimes as slaves, who were able to convince their masters of their exceptional abilities, and so win release from slavery.
There were, in biblical times, other meanings for the term "interpreter," however. In some places, as in Job 33:23 and in Isaiah 43:27, the interpreter is an intermediary between God and man, a spokesman or ambassador for God. And, when you come right down to it, this is saying approximately the same thing - God doesn’t always speak in a language that we can understand, and so we must have interpreters to help in our understanding.
Later, in New Testament times, it came to have still other meanings. For one thing, it was used in reference to explaining the speech of those with the gift of tongues, and for expounding the scriptures, as well as translating foreign languages.
As long as man chooses to live in a Babel-like existence, refusing to acknowledge and accept the rights of others, to "talk with language," so to speak, interpreters will be necessary. Interpreters of words, of deeds, and of God’s voice.
41. The Living Christ
Illustration
Susan R. Andrews
As a young man, Mahatma Gandhi studied in London. After learning about Christianity, and after reading the Sermon on the Mount, he decided that Christianity was the most complete religion in the world. It was only later, when he lived with a Christian family in East India, that he changed his mind. In that household he discovered that the word rarely became flesh, that the teaching of Jesus rarely became the reality of Jesus.
How "fleshy" is Jesus in our congregations? How persuasive is our teaching? How passionate is our preaching? How much do our hearts burn within us when the scriptures are opened to us? And how often do we recognize the stranger as the living Christ in our midst?
42. Proclamation Appointing a National Fast Day
Illustration
William H. Seward
Washington, D.C. March 30, 1863
Senator James Harlan of Iowa, whose daughter later married President Lincoln's son Robert, introduced this Resolution in the Senate on March 2, 1863. The Resolution asked President Lincoln to proclaim a national day of prayer and fasting. The Resolution was adopted on March 3, and signed by Lincoln on March 30, one month before the fast day was observed.
By the President of the United States of America.
A Proclamation.
Whereas, the Senate of the United States, devoutly recognizing the Supreme Authority and just Government of Almighty God, in all the affairs of men and of nations, has, by a resolution, requested the President to designate and set apart a day for National prayer and humiliation.
And whereas it is the duty of nations as well as of men, to own their dependence upon the overruling power of God, to confess their sins and transgressions, in humble sorrow, yet with assured hope that genuine repentance will lead to mercy and pardon; and to recognize the sublime truth, announced in the Holy Scriptures and proven by all history, that those nations only are blessed whose God is the Lord.
And, insomuch as we know that, by His divine law, nations like individuals are subjected to punishments and chastisem*nts in this world, may we not justly fear that the awful calamity of civil war, which now desolates the land, may be but a punishment, inflicted upon us, for our presumptuous sins, to the needful end of our national reformation as a whole People? We have been the recipients of the choicest bounties of Heaven. We have been preserved, these many years, in peace and prosperity. We have grown in numbers, wealth and power, as no other nation has ever grown. But we have forgotten God. We have forgotten the gracious hand which preserved us in peace, and multiplied and enriched and strengthened us; and we have vainly imagined, in the deceitfulness of our hearts, that all these blessings were produced by some superior wisdom and virtue of our own. Intoxicated with unbroken success, we have become too self-sufficient to feel the necessity of redeeming and preserving grace, too proud to pray to the God that made us!
It behooves us then, to humble ourselves before the offended Power, to confess our national sins, and to pray for clemency and forgiveness.
Now, therefore, in compliance with the request, and fully concurring in the views of the Senate, I do, by this my proclamation, designate and set apart Thursday, the 30th. day of April, 1863, as a day of national humiliation, fasting and prayer. And I do hereby request all the People to abstain, on that day, from their ordinary secular pursuits, and to unite, at their several places of public worship and their respective homes, in keeping the day holy to the Lord, and devoted to the humble discharge of the religious duties proper to that solemn occasion.
All this being done, in sincerity and truth, let us then rest humbly in the hope authorized by the Divine teachings, that the united cry of the Nation will be heard on high, and answered with blessings, no less than the pardon of our national sins, and the restoration of our now divided and suffering Country, to its former happy condition of unity and peace.
In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed.
Done at the City of Washington, this thirtieth day of March, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and of the Independence of the United States the eighty seventh.
By the President: Abraham Lincoln
William H. Seward, Secretary of State.
43. The Inhabitants of Heaven
Illustration
Wilbur M. Smith
Of all the supernatural beings mentioned in the Scriptures, it is the angels who are constantly depicted as being identified with heaven. When the angel of God called to Hagar in the wilderness, we read that this call was heard "out of heaven" (Gen. 21:17). When the angel appeared at the time of the vision which Jacob heard at Bethel, he saw a ladder reaching to heaven on which the angels of God were ascending and descending. Often the angels are called the "heavenly ones" (Ps. 29:1) or the "heavenly host" (Luke 2:13). When the angelic host had finished their song to the shepherds, we read that "the angels went away with them into heaven" (Luke 2:15). It was an angel "from heaven" that rolled away the stone at the tomb where our Lord was buried (Matt. 28:2). Our Lord Himself often spoke of "the angels in heaven" (Mark 12:25; 13:32; Mate. 22:30). Then we have such a phrase as "the angels of heaven" (Matt. 24:36), and in a most interesting passage our Lord said, "Angels do always behold the face of my Father which is in heaven" (Matt. 18:10).
44. The Disciples Were Not Superheroes
Illustration
David A. Van Dyke
The theory was developed by Lawrence Peter and its principle is this: In a hierarchy, every employee tends to rise to his or her level of incompetence. The Peter Principle is supposed to explain occupational incompetence and I wonder if it were applied to the disciples, how they'd fare.
One of the things that makes the Bible and the Gospels so compelling to me, is the humanness of Christianity's first converts and adherents. They were not superheroes of faith and virtue. They were not among the most educated and enlightened—they were not scholars or very sophisticated even in that ancient culture. And the Bible is actually told in a way that exposes them in all their human weakness, with all their faults glaring. Scholars are quick to point out that the flaws in the disciples merely serve as a stark contrast to Jesus and therefore help us see him in the proper light. In fact, some claim that Peter exemplifies this in that he's always impetuous, usually misguided and often speaking when he should be listening. And yet curiously, it is Peter whom Jesus calls a rock and upon whom he would build his church.
45. Missing the Rocks
Illustration
David E. Leininger
There is a joke concerning this text that has gone around for years about three ministers out fishing together in a small boat. One of them, suddenly realizing that he had left his tackle box in the cabin, stepped out of the boat, and walked on the water over to shore. Just then, the second one said he had forgotten his faithful fishing hat on the front seat of the car. He too stepped out of the boat and walked on the water over to shore. When they had both returned, the third minister who had watched this remarkable demonstration with mouth open and eyes wide, reasoned to himself "My faith is as strong as theirs. I can do that too."
So he stepped out of the boat and promptly sank to the bottom. His two companions dragged him out, but once they got him in the boat, he was determined not to be shown up. He stepped out once more, and immediately sank again. As his friends pulled him out, he sputtered, "My faith is as strong as yours. Why can't I walk on the water?"
The first two looked at each another and one finally said, "We'd better tell him where those rocks are before he drowns himself."
46. Two Kinds of Life and Death
Illustration
John R. Brokhoff
Two Kinds of Life:The Greeks had two words for "life" and both appear in the New Testament. One is bios from which we get "biology." It refers to biological and physical life. It is not true life but mere existence. This is life in terms of quantity and extension. Methuselah, the oldest man in the Bible, had this kind of life. He lived 969 years, but there is no record of any contribution he made to the welfare of society.
The other Greek word is zoe. It is used to denote true life, the quality of life. It is spiritual life with God as the source of life. While bios is temporal, zoe is eternal. The one deals with the body and the other with the soul. But this eternal life also has quantity, for it extends through eternity. To distinguish this type of life from the former, the New Testament uses "eternal life."
Two Kinds of Death: As there are two kinds of life, there are two kinds of death. The bios type of life ends in physical death. The body declines, deteriorates, and dies. This is in accord with the natural order, for all living things die, including hom*o sapiens. If a human were only a physical body, the person would come to an end. In this case, death has the last word and is the ultimate victor over life.
There is another kind of death. The Bible speaks of death in terms of separation from God. "The soul that sins shall die" (Ezekiel 18:4). Sin is the dreadful agent that separates us from God. To be apart from God, from life, love, joy, and peace, is to be dead. Does this mean that the soul is exterminated or extinguished? If so, there would be a merciful nothingness. However, the Bible teaches that a soul apart from God, living in death, is in hell, a state of misery. Paul describes the condition in hell: "They shall suffer the punishment of eternal destruction and exclusion from the presence of the Lord and from the glory of his might" (2 Thessalonians 1:9). As there is eternal life, there is also everlasting death. It is to save us from this fate that God gave his Son to die for us and to reinstate us with God in whom we have eternal life. The scriptures repeatedly assure us that God does not want a single soul to perish or to be lost or to go to hell. In Christ, God the Father gave his very self to prevent people from going to everlasting death.
47. Evil in the Trenches
Illustration
Larry Powell
In considerationof our scripture selection, the title as listed above appears to be unreasonably over-stated. In our mind’s eye, we conceive Jesus and the disciples striding directly into a well-laid trap. The priests are hunkering low in waistdeep trenches, the scribes located strategically in reinforced bunkers, their religious peers dug in somewhere behind barbed wire barricades ... "entrenched evil." But no, it was not to be that obvious. Evil entrenches itself in many ways. We will mention here some of the more glaring entrenchments encountered by Jesus and the twelve as they entered the holy city.
1. Corruption. Dishonesty, misrepresentation, and crookedness are always evil because they are the manifestation of a lie. Corruption had carried over onto the temple steps. The money-changers were short-changing alien Jews who had come to purchase sacrificial animals for the Passover. Those who sold pigeons were receiving top dollar while peddling inferior merchandise. The temple area had been transformed into a carnival atmosphere. Not surprisingly, Jesus "began to drive out those who sold and those who bought in the temple, and he overturned the tables of the money-changers and the seats of those who sold pigeons" (11:15).
2. Prejudice. The institutional luminaries, the priests and religious authorities, would have none of the revolutionary carpenter’s blasphemies occur in their jurisdiction if they could prevent it. Immediately, they took up their favorite ploy of setting the people against him. Moreover, in self-righteous arrogance, they accosted him with loaded questions (11:27-33). Prejudice is entrenched evil, no matter of its object.
3. Fear. The scriptures say the chief priests and scribes "feared" him. Fear causes one to imagine things and dig in at the heels, creates paranoia, and circles the wagons around defenses. Fear entrenches. Jesus encountered corruption, prejudice, and fear upon entering the holy city.
4. Brokenness. Brokenness is evil because it disintegrates and prevents wholeness. Jesus came to heal physical, spiritual, mental, and social brokenness. This had been his ministry for three turbulent years, but he had not eliminated it; Jerusalem was evidence of that.
Jesus indeed confronted "entrenched evil." As Christians, we are called apart to continue the confrontation.
48. The Trinity - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
A preacher proudly boasted that he does not preach doctrinal sermons. They are boring he asserts and people do not understand or relate to them. Further, he claimed, I am a preacher and not a theologian. I get down do the practical issues and simply preach Christ crucified.
His thinking is faulty at several points. First, he is wrong when he says that he is not a theologian. The fact is that everyone to a certain extent is a theologian. Theology is nothing more than what you think about God. Well, shouts one person, I don't believe In God. That then is your theology. I would also take issue with him when he claims that he does not preach theology but gets down to practical issues. In my thinking there is no difference in good theology and good practice. Good, solid theology gets down to the very core of our existence.
Finally, I would disagree with him when he says that we should only preach Christ crucified. I know that is what the Apostle Paul said but this preacher doesn't mean what Paul meant. He is saying that he only preaches about the cross and saving the sinner. I submit to you that the cross is not central in Paul's theology; rather, it is Christ. It has always puzzled me why some ministers preach the message of salvation to people who have been sitting in the pews all their life when they need so much more of Christ's teaching on life's other issues. There are many strings on a guitar. To make beautiful music all of them must be played and not just one. That is why in the United Methodist Church we honor the lectionary and the seasons of the church year. That insures a witness to the whole Gospel of Jesus Christ. How can one go through the season of Advent and not touch upon the doctrine of the incarnation. How can one go through Lent without touching upon the doctrine of the resurrection? Likewise, how can we embark upon the season of Pentecost, as we did last week, without mentioning the doctrine of the Trinity?
Today is Trinity Sunday. This is a day that has been celebrated in the Christian church since the 10th century. It is on this occasion that ministers around the world address themselves to the subject of the triune God.
Let me begin by saying that the doctrine of the Trinity does not attempt to explain God. It only explains to us in a very elemental way what God has revealed to us about himself so far. To describe the tip of the iceberg above the water is not to describe the entire iceberg. So we Christians affirm the Trinity, not as an explanation of God, but simply as a way of describing what we know about Him.
The idea of the Trinity is not emphatically stated as a doctrine in the scriptures. Yet, by implication, it is stated many times. The early Christians soon discovered that they simply could not speak of God without speaking of the three ways in which he had revealed himself to them. This does not mean that there are three separate Gods. It means that there is one God who has shown himself in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Let's look at these this morning:
1. First, we affirm God the Father.
2. Secondly, we affirm belief in the Son, Jesus Christ.
3. Finally, we affirm belief in the Holy Spirit.
49. The Personal Touch - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
One day Lamar Hunt, the man who started the American Football League and owner of the Kansas City Chiefs, came across his daughter's Super Ball and was given the inspiration for the name of the championship game between his upstart AFL and the old guard National Football League.
"Why not," he wondered, "call our championship game the Super Bowl?" The name caught on quickly and thus, an American tradition was born. Today's the big game! And there is an interesting story behind one of the players. If you watch the game today I want you to remember this story about Jerry Rice.
He was the longtime star for the San Francisco 49ers, considered one of the greatest receivers in the history of football; he played for the 49ers for 15 years, 1985 to 2000. Tonight he will be playing for the Raiders. He is a famous athlete and you would think he came from some legendary college team but he didn't. He played for Mississippi Valley State University, in Itta Bena, Mississippi, a virtual unknown.
He was once asked, "Why did you attend a small, obscure university like Mississippi Valley State University in Itta Bena, Mississippi?" Rice responded, "Out of all the big-time schools (such as UCLA) to recruit me, MVSU was the only school to come to my house and give me a personal visit."
The big-time schools recruited through cards, letters, and advertisem*nts, but only one came to meet him and showed Rice personal attention. It makes a difference in this world to meet people eye to eye and invite them to be a part. As Jesus passed along the sea of Galilee, the scriptures say, he saw Simon and his brother casting a net into the sea. He approached them and invited them to be a part. He went a little further and he saw two more brothers: James and John. He went up to them extending the same invitation and they followed. It is the personal touch which attracts us, is it not? Cards and letters are nice and they're meaningful but they can only do so much. And advertising is so impersonal. But a shake of the hand and a personal touch, it makes all the difference.
How can we reach others for Christ? And do it with a personal touch? I believe we can do it by...
1. Meeting people where they are.
2. Personalizing our approach.
3. Finding our calling.
50. Our Real Work for Christ
Illustration
J. Hampton Keathley III
All around us are forces at work to distract, delude, and deter us from experiencing God's plan and vision for us as individual believers and as the body of Christ as a whole. We see people shattered on the rocks of delusion and despair. We see a skyrocketing divorce rate, abuse in the home, disease, crime, abortion, gangs, suicide, incest, child abuse, rape, drive-by shootings, drugs, and the inability of government to handle our problems because we are a people who seek man-made solutions and ignore the biblical mandates of Scripture. So, the list of problems grow.
Unfortunately, in the midst of this, we also see churches turned inward rather than outward as lights in the midst of this horrible darkness. Why? Because to a very large degree, the church—though very religious—has ignored the truth of this passage and lost sight of the vision it gives us of what life should be.
Let us not forget as we examine this passage that Christ's conflict was with the religious people. They were experts in the Old Testament Scriptures but they had missed the central truth of the Word of God. And the same can apply to us.
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